Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Quarterly Volume 20, Number

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1 Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Quarterly Volume 20, Number Attributional Style as a Predictor of Hopelessness Depression Edward D. Sturman, PhD Myriam Mongrain, PhD Paul M. Kohn, PhD York University Toronto, Ontario, Canada Stable and global attributions for negative events were tested as predictors of hopelessness depression symptoms, obtained from a diagnostic interview for a past depressive episode in a sample of 102 graduate students. All participants were administered the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM IV, Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale, Personal Style Inventory, and a modified version of the Extended Attributional Style Questionnaire. A stable and global attributional style for negative events was significantly associated with a composite of hopelessness depression symptoms. A regression analysis revealed that attributional style significantly postdicted hopelessness depression symptoms when controlling for both sociotropy and autonomy. Structural equation modeling supported a model in which stable and global attributions predicted a latent variable, which we refer to as a motivational deficit, involving psychomotor retardation and fatigue as indicators. Therefore, this study obtained some support for the hopelessness model and highlights the vulnerability posed by attributional style ( Abramson, Metalsky, & Alloy, 1989 ). Keywords: attributional style; cognitive vulnerability; hopelessness depression; depressionsubtypes Cognitive models have achieved increasing popularity as theoretical frameworks for depression. One of the more prominent models is the hopelessness theory of depression ( Abramson, Metalsky, & Alloy, 1989 ), a diathesis-stress model in which the outcome is a specific set of depressive symptoms constituting the subtype of hopelessness depression (HD). According to Abramson et al. (1989), hopelessness is both a sufficient and proximal cause for hopelessness depression and can be broken down into its respective elements: (1) negative expectations for outcomes that are valued by an individual and (2) expectations that one is helpless in modifying the likelihood of those outcomes. In describing the development of hopelessness, Abramson et al. (1989) outlined an etiologic chain consisting of stressors in the form of negative life events that interact with depressive inferential styles about the cause, consequences, and implications for the self of negative life events (diathesis). Therefore, negative life events are more likely to lead to hopelessness when they are attributed to stable (enduring) and global (affecting many outcomes) causes, viewed as important, and have negative implications for the self. When negative characteristics 2006 Springer Publishing Company 447

2 448 Predictor of Hopelessness Depression of the self are thought to be irremediable and will prohibit important outcomes, hopelessness is especially likely. Abramson et al. (1989) suggested that individuals with such a depressive inferential style would be more vulnerable to developing hopelessness and symptoms of hopelessness depression. The present study sought to determine whether an assortment of depressive symptoms, typically found in major depression, would form a coherent set corresponding to the hopelessness depression subtype. Furthermore, this symptom profile was expected to be associated with attributional style. Some of the hopelessness symptoms proposed by Abramson et al. (1989) are shared with major depression, as defined in the DSM IV, such as sad affect, initial insomnia, lack of energy, psychomotor retardation, problems with concentration, and suicidal ideation/ attempts. Other symptoms are unique, such as the retarded initiation of voluntary responses and apathy, reflecting helplessness in modifying negative outcomes and hopelessness about the future. Related to the motivational deficit are the additional symptoms of lack of energy, apathy, and psychomotor retardation. The current article focused on the symptoms specified in the DSM IV obtained through a clinical interview. E MPIRICAL VALIDATION OF HOPELESSNESS DEPRESSION Many investigators have sought to test the symptom profile for hopelessness depression, and to summarize these findings our literature review has categorized the wide array of studies as those that have: (1) utilized a taxometric approach; (2) used interitem correlations, factor analysis, or structural equation modeling to test groups of symptoms; and (3) incorporated aspects of the Abramson et al. (1989) etiologic model in relation to HD symptom constellations. Taxometric analyses have generally yielded little or no support for a hopelessness depression subtype. Haslam and Beck (1994) showed that of five proposed depressive subtypes (autonomous, sociotropic, self-critical, endogenous, and hopelessness), only endogenous depression appeared to be a discrete subtype. Hopelessness depression symptoms were neither a discrete subtype nor empirically coherent so as to suggest a dimensional model. Whisman and Pinto (1997) also did not find support for hopelessness depression as a separate taxon but suggested that HD might be better thought of as a dimension or continuum. In contrast, studies that have utilized factor analytic techniques or examined intercorrelations between hopelessness depression items generally support the existence of this subtype. For instance, HD symptoms have been shown to be correlated with each other but not to other depressive symptoms or symptoms from other mental disorders ( Alloy & Clements, 1998 ; Alloy, Just, & Panzarella, 1997 ). Research using confirmatory factor analysis has demonstrated that HD symptoms load on a single latent variable and suggests that such models are viable ( Joiner et al., 2001 ; Metalsky & Joiner, 1997 ). Similarly, a good deal of evidence exists for the HD model when attributional style and other aspects of the model are used to predict symptoms of HD or major depression. For instance, Alloy and Clements (1998) prospectively tested the HD model in a sample of undergraduate students and found that the interaction of a negative attributional style and negative life events predicted change in HD symptoms after a 1-month interval. That is, those participants with a stable and global attributional style showed an increase in overall HD symptoms when they experienced a high number of negative life events. Furthermore, hopelessness was found to mediate this relationship between the attributional diathesis-stress interaction and HD. Thus, fairly strong support for the hopelessness model as a whole and HD symptoms in particular was obtained in this study. Different groups of researchers also have found that attributional style and life events interact to specifically predict HD symptoms but not other features of depression ( Alloy et al., 1997 ; Metalsky & Joiner, 1997 ).

3 Sturman et al. 449 Other research has examined the direct effect of negative inferential style and other forms of cognitive vulnerability on HD symptoms and major depression. In particular, the ongoing Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression (CVD) Project has combined different cognitive risk factors (Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale, or DAS, and negative inferential style) and tested their ability to predict depressive symptoms. In a series of studies, participants were divided into high-risk (HR) or low-risk (LR) groups, defined as the top and bottom quartile for both dysfunctional attitudes (as measured by the DAS) and negative inferential style (measured with the Cognitive Style Questionnaire, or CSQ ). Using this design, Alloy et al. (2000), showed that a high-risk group had a significantly greater prevalence, relative to a low-risk group, of episodic depressive disorders, major depressive disorders, and hopelessness depression (symptoms were assessed with the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia Lifetime, or SADS-L, interview ). It was also found that cognitive vulnerability was specific for depressive disorders and did not postdict other DSM III R or Research Diagnostic Criteria (RDC ) disorders. Cognitive risk continued to be related to lifetime major depression and hopelessness depression when controlling for other cognitive styles (autonomy, sociotropy, self-consciousness, and stress-reactive rumination). Similarly, Joiner (2001) found that negative attributional style was specifically related to Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) items corresponding to HD symptoms, even when controlling for endogenous depression. Recently, Haeffel et al. (2003), building on the Alloy et al. (2000) findings, isolated the specific cognitive vulnerability to depression. They determined that negative inferential style, but not dysfunctional attitudes, predicted a past episode of major depression and hopelessness depression (assessed with the SADS-L interview). Similarly, Mongrain and Blackburn (in press) found that a negative attributional style was a significant predictor of depressive recurrences over a two-year follow-up. Therefore, there is some evidence that attributional style might constitute an important vulnerability for major depression and, more specifically, a particular symptom profile, which is the focus of the present investigation. S TUDY OVERVIEW The present study is most similar to that of Alloy et al. (2000) in that a retrospective design was used to examine the association between attributional style and specific depressive symptoms obtained from a clinical interview. Similarly, this study did not seek to test the full hopelessness model but rather the symptom profile in connection with attributional style. Unlike Alloy et al. (2000), the attributional diathesis was assessed on a continuum, although we expected to replicate previous findings obtained with extreme groups. It should be noted that other vulnerabilities to depressive symptomatology also have been proposed, such as Beck s (1983) constructs of sociotropy and autonomy. Very briefly, sociotropic, or dependent, individuals need others for safety, help, gratification and therefore require a stable relationship in order to guarantee the delivery of these interpersonal supplies. People belonging to the autonomous type have their own set of standards, goals, and methods for rewarding themselves. Their standards and goals are often higher than those generally found in society, and, consequently, these people may judge themselves more harshly than others would. Both of these personality styles are theoretically linked to depressive symptomatology, and although empirical support for sociotropy is fairly ubiquitous, the findings for autonomy have been more mixed (see Clark, Beck, & Brown, 1992 ; Robins & Block, 1988 ; Robins, Block, & Peselow, 1989 ). These variables were included in the present study to determine the unique contribution of attributional style for symptoms of hopelessness depression over and above these other vulnerability constructs. We expected sociotropy and autonomy to be linked to depressive symptoms in general but not to specific HD symptoms.

4 450 Predictor of Hopelessness Depression The specific hypotheses were as follows: 1. Attributional style was expected to be associated with past HD symptoms comprising a composite of symptoms (insomnia, psychomotor retardation, anergia/fatigue, lack of concentration, and suicidal ideation), obtained from a clinical interview. 2. Attributional style was hypothesized to postdict HD symptoms, controlling for sociotropy and autonomy. 3. To explore the empirical merit of an HD subtype, the hopelessness symptoms were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis and examined as a latent construct. In accord with the HD model, it was expected that attributional style would be associated with this latent variable. Participants and Procedure M ETHODS Participants were required to have at least one prior episode of major depression and were screened from a large pool of graduate students from the University of Toronto and York University. The initial screening instrument was the Inventory to Diagnose Depression, Lifetime Version (IDD-L; Zimmerman & Coryell, 1987 ). A questionnaire packet containing the IDD-L, demographic questions, and a consent form was distributed in graduate students mailboxes at both universities. Of the 860 copies of the IDD-L that were returned, 428 met criteria for a past depressive episode. Students who met criteria on the IDD-L for a previous episode of depression were contacted by telephone and asked additional screening questions. The participants that passed the telephone screen were administered the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM IV in person (SCID, version 2.0; First, Spitzer, Gibbon, Williams, & Benjamin, 1996a ) to confirm a previous episode of major depression and diagnose other psychopathology. Exclusionary criteria included suicidality at the time of the interview, psychotic features, substance abuse, bipolar disorder, eating disorders, and schizoid, schizotypal, borderline, and antisocial personality disorders. Interview data pertaining to past depressive symptoms (SCID) were available for 172 participants and were coded for hopelessness depression (HD). Questionnaire packages, including an attribution measure (Extended Attributional Style Questionnaire, or EASQ), were mailed to participants after the initial interview. Of the 172 available participants, 115 completed the EASQ. These participants did not differ from those who did not complete the questionnaire on any of the symptoms of HD, although there was a trend toward less impairment in concentration during a past episode of depression for those who failed to return the questionnaire (M = 1.85 vs. M = 1.65, p =.052). Subsequently, 13 participants who were diagnosed with a current major depressive episode were excluded from the analyses, so as to minimize the potential effect of clinical state on causal attributions for negative events. This left a final sample of 102 participants (77 females and 25 males). Measures The Inventory to Diagnose Depression, Lifetime Version. The Inventory to Diagnose Depression, Lifetime Version (IDD-L; Zimmerman & Coryell, 1987 ) is a 22-item questionnaire designed to assess a lifetime history of depression that corresponds to DSM criteria. Each item is rated on a 4-point scale, with higher values indicating greater symptom severity, and the duration for each symptom (more or less than 2 weeks) is also determined. Zimmerman and Coryell (1987) reported high internal consistency (Cronbach s Alpha = 0.92) and split-half reliability (Spearman-Brown coefficient = 0.90). Other investigators ( Sato et al., 1996 ) also have shown the IDD-L to have a high degree of internal consistency (Alpha >.90). The sensitivity of the IDD- L appears to range from 70% to 74% and the specificity from 93% to 95% ( Goldston, O Hara, & Schartz, 1990 ; Zimmermann & Coryell, 1987 ). Sato et al. (1996) demonstrated convergent

5 Sturman et al. 451 validity for the IDD-L in that it showed good agreement with the SCID ( r =.75). In the present study, Cronbach s Alpha was.87 for the York University sample ( n = 307) and.88 for the University of Toronto sample ( n = 501). A total of 52 cases were excluded from the analyses because participants failed to respond to some of the questions. Structured Clinical Interview for DSM IV, Axis I Disorders and Axis II Personality Disorders. The Structured Clinical Interviews for DSM IV, Axis I disorders (SCID I; First et al., 1996a ) and Axis II personality disorders (SCID II; First et al., 1996b ) are structured clinical interviews for diagnosing DSM IV Axis-I and Axis-II disorders. A detailed account of prior depressive episodes and comorbid disorders was obtained with this measure. All SCID interviews were taped, and an expert coder rated one-third of the interviews. Agreement between the expert coder and other raters was very high at 98% for DSM IV Axis I disorders and 93% for Axis II personality disorders. There was 95% agreement for the diagnosis of a past depressive episode (kappa =.97). All participants were interviewed with the SCID during their initial visit. The SCID interviews were recorded on a separate scoring sheet and audiotape. All symptoms, were coded on an ordinal scale with 0 = symptom absent, 1 = symptom present but subthreshold, and 2 = meets criteria for symptom. The SCID was used to assess HD symptoms (insomnia, psychomotor retardation, anergia/fatigue, lack of concentration, and suicidal ideation) derived from the Abramson et al. (1989) model. The interview did not allow for an assessment of other HD symptoms including apathy and retarded initiation of voluntary responses. The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977 ) is a widely used self-report measure originally designed to assess levels of depression in the general population. It consists of 20 items, each rated on a 4-point scale (higher scores indicate greater symptom severity). Radloff (1977) tested the psychometric properties of the scale and found that it achieved a high degree of internal consistency with coefficient alpha ranging from 0.85 in the general population to 0.90 in a clinical sample. Convergent validity has been obtained for the measure as correlations with the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression and the Raskin Rating Scale were high after 4 weeks of treatment (r = 0.69 and 0.75). Santor, Zuroff, Ramsay, Cervantes, and Palacios (1995) compared the test characteristic curves of the BDI and CES-D and found the CES-D to be more discriminating in determining symptom severity in both a college and a depressed outpatient sample. The Extended Attributional Style Questionnaire. Although a more comprehensive measure of inferential style exists (CSQ) that assesses not only causal attributions for events but also their consequences and implications for the self, it was not available at the time that the current study was conducted. Insofar as we were more interested in the cognitive vulnerability posed by attributional style, however, the Extended Attributional Style Questionnaire (EASQ; Metalsky, Halberstadt, & Abramson, 1987 ) proved to be an adequate measure. The EASQ consists of 12 negative hypothetical events and asks respondents to provide a cause for each. These causes are then rated on a 7-point scale in terms of their stability, globality, and internality. For the present study, the EASQ was modified to include only those items that would be relevant to graduate students. This left 6 scenarios: 3 negative interpersonal events and 3 negative achievement events. An example of a globality item in the interpersonal domain is: Think about the cause of your not being in an intimate, romantic relationship. Is this cause something that leads to problems just in that instance of your wanting to be in an intimate, romantic relationship, or does this cause also lead to problems in other areas of your life? An example of the stability dimension in the achievement domain is: Will the cause of your receiving a low grade on the exam now, as described above, again cause you to receive a low grade on other exams in the future? For the present study, the generality score (average of stability and globality) was used to test cognitive vulnerability. The Cronbach s Alpha was.77 for the generality subscale.

6 452 Predictor of Hopelessness Depression The Personal Style Inventory. The Personal Style Inventory (PSI; Robins et al., 1994 ) is a 48-item inventory, with a 6-point response format, designed to measure Beck s (1983) constructs of sociotropy and autonomy. An example of an item for sociotropy is: I find it hard to be separated from people I love. For autonomy, a representative item would be: I resent it when other people try to direct my behavior or activities. Both the sociotropy and autonomy subscales have demonstrated a good factor structure as well as internal and test-retest reliability ( Robins et al., 1994, Sato & McCann, 1997 ). In the present study, the PSI demonstrated excellent internal consistency with Cronbach s Alphas of.90 for sociotropy and.88 for autonomy. Robins et al. (1994) obtained construct validity for the PSI as evidenced by associations with depressive symptoms and the related constructs of dependency and self-criticism ( Blatt, D Afflitti, & Quinlan, 1976 ). R ESULTS In the present study, the typical and atypical manifestations of each symptom for the most recent depressive episode were coded for a maximum of 13 distinct symptoms. Frequency distributions for the symptoms indicated that there was a great deal of variability in the extent to which each symptom was endorsed by the sample (see Table 1 ). For instance, weight gain was a definite symptom in only 14 (13.7%) participants, whereas depressed mood was a definite symptom in every participant save one (99.0%). This latter finding, however, was to be expected given that depressed mood and lack of interest/pleasure constitute the primary criteria for a past major depressive episode according to the DSM IV. Depressed mood and lack of interest/pleasure were excluded from subsequent analyses due to this lack of variability. Fatigue was present in 90.2% of participants but was retained, as there was enough variability to justify its inclusion. TABLE 1. FREQUENCY OF INDIVIDUAL DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS (N = 102) Symptom Absent Possible Definite Depressed mood Lack of interest Weight loss Weight gain Insomnia a Hypersomnia Psychomotor retardation a Psychomotor agitation Fatigue a Worthlessness Guilt Impaired concentration a Suicidality a a Variables that constituted hopelessness depression as measured by the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (First et al., 1996a). All symptoms were coded as 0 = absent, 1 = possible, or 2 = definite.

7 Attributional Style and Hopelessness Symptoms Sturman et al. 453 The five symptoms comprising the symptoms of hopelessness depression (HD) were summed to form an HD composite score (M = 6.07, SD = 1.91). According to the hopelessness theory, attributional style should be linked to HD symptoms. Indeed, the generality subscale of the EASQ (M = 15.15, SD = 3.71) was significantly correlated with the HD composite measure (r =.24, p =.017). To determine the specificity of this relationship, the generality subscale was also compared to a composite of all non-hd symptoms (lack of interest, weight loss, weight gain, hypersomnia, psychomotor agitation, worthlessness, and guilt). A correlation revealed no connection between attributional style and non-hd symptoms (r =.03, p =.760), providing some support for the specific vulnerability posed by the attributional diathesis. Both sociotropy (M = 3.82, SD =.73) and autonomy (M = 3.53, SD =.65) were moderately correlated with overall depressive symptoms as measured by the CESD (r =.40, p =.001 and r =.48, p =.001, respectively). Sociotropy and autonomy were not significantly correlated with the HD composite score (r =.06 and r =.08, respectively). A regression analysis revealed that attributional style significantly predicted the HD composite score, over and above sociotropy and autonomy (see Table 2 ). No other predictor made a unique contribution to outcome. Examination of the normal probability plot and a histogram indicated that the regression analysis exhibited multivariate normality. Furthermore, there did not appear to be problems with colinearity (VIF < 10 for all predictors) or heteroscedasticity, according to a residual scatter plot. Therefore, the regression analysis lends discriminant validity to the Abramson et al. (1989) model. Testing the HD Model Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to determine whether a coherent latent variable could be obtained from the theoretically derived symptoms suggested by Abramson et al. (1989) (see Figure 1). These symptoms included insomnia, psychomotor retardation, fatigue, concentration, and suicidal ideation/attempts. Because each of the symptoms was measured on an ordinal scale, the model was based on polychoric correlations between symptoms and polyseral correlations between the continuous variables and symptoms. Current depressive symptoms, as measured by the CESD, were included in the model as a covariate of attributional style so that current mood could be accounted for. Several criteria were employed in the present study to determine the extent to which the model fit the data, as described by Tabachnik and Fidell (1996). The chi-square ( χ 2 ) p value should be greater than.05 (a significant difference between the estimated population covariance TABLE 2. REGRESSION ANALYSIS WITH ATTRIBUTIONAL STYLE PREDICTING HD SYMPTOMS a Model B β p Partial Correlation Attributional style b Sociotropy c Autonomy c Note. All predictors were entered simultaneously, and the unique contribution for each is reported. a HD symptoms reflect a composite variable with symptoms taken from DSM-IV criteria for past major depression (sum of 5 symptoms) and obtained by clinical interview (SCID). b Attributional style was measured with the generality subscale of the revised version of the EASQ (Metalsky et al. 1987). c Sociotropy and autonomy were assessed with the PSI (Robins et al., 1994).

8 454 Predictor of Hopelessness Depression FIGURE 1. Attributional style as a predictor of hopelessness depression (HD) symptoms. A latent variable, representing hopelessness depression, was derived from five DSM IV symptoms from the most recent past depressive episode. Attributional style (EASQ) and current depressive symptoms (CESD) were entered as predictors of the HD latent variable. matrix and the sample covariance matrix indicates a poor-fitting model). The Comparative Fit Index (CFI) compares the noncentrality parameters of the estimated model and the independence model. The Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) is used to evaluate the amount of variance for the sample covariance matrix that is explainable in terms of the estimated covariance matrix ( Joreskog & Sorbom, 1984 ). For the aforementioned indexes, a cutoff of 0.90 for the GFI and.95 for the CFI is indicative of a model that fits the data well (1.0 being the best possible fit). Finally, the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA; Browne & Cudek, 1993 ) should be less than.06 in a good-fitting model. According to several indexes, the hypothetical model fit the data very well ( χ 2 = 9.835, df = 13, p =.707, CFI = 1.000, GFI =.974, RMSEA =.000). The indicators (depressive symptoms) generally had weak path coefficients with the latent HD variable, however, except the path for fatigue (.90). In contrast, the standardized path coefficient between attributional style and the latent variable was fairly strong (.43) but not statistically significant (p =.189). It is noteworthy that current depressive symptomatology, as measured by the CESD, was significantly correlated with attributional style but did not postdict the HD latent variable. To summarize, the model fit the data well as a whole, but HD symptoms did not load uniformly on the latent variable, failing to provide evidence for a coherent HD variable.

9 Sturman et al. 455 In light of these findings, a second model was tested, in which indicators with weak path coefficients to the latent variable were trimmed. This left psychomotor retardation and fatigue as the lone indicators. As shown in Figure 2, both psychomotor retardation (.60) and fatigue (.86) loaded on the latent variable, which was interpreted as motivational deficit. Furthermore, attributional style significantly postdicted the latent variable (β =.36, p =.002). Current depressive symptoms were significantly correlated with attributional style but did not significantly postdict the latent variable. Consequently, the path between current depressive symptoms and the latent variable was removed, providing a good-fitting model ( χ 2 = 2.391, df = 2, p =.303, CFI =.994, GFI =.988, RMSEA =.044). These data indicate that attributional style, irrespective of current mood, was significantly associated with the motivational deficit latent variable. Finally, as a further test of the trimmed model, psychomotor retardation and fatigue were summed to form a composite score, which was entered into a regression analysis and predicted by sociotropy, autonomy, and attributional style. Attributional style emerged as a significant predictor (β =.321, p =.005) but sociotropy (β =.037, p =.734) and autonomy (β =.166, p =.129) did not. This suggests that the attributional diathesis was uniquely related to a motivational deficit, as was found in the analyses predicting the HD composite index. FIGURE 2. Attributional style predicts a motivational deficit. The latent variable comprised two hopelessness depression symptoms (psychomotor retardation and fatigue) experienced during the most recent depressive episode.

10 456 Predictor of Hopelessness Depression D ISCUSSION Attributional style was related to a dimensional measure of HD symptoms, in line with several other studies that had used composite symptom scores as a dependent variable ( Alloy & Clements, 1998 ; Joiner, 2001 ; Spangler, Simons, Monroe, & Thase, 1993 ; Whisman, Miller, Norman, & Keitner, 1995 ; Whisman & Pinto, 1997 ). Furthermore, it was demonstrated that attributional style was uniquely related to this HD dimension and not to other depressive symptoms. Attributional style continued to significantly postdict this dimension even when controlling for sociotropy and autonomy. Sociotropy and autonomy did not uniquely postdict symptoms of hopelessness depression. Therefore, the present findings support the discriminant validity of the Abramson et al. (1989) model and indicate that only attributional style is directly related to HD symptoms. Attributional style significantly postdicted a latent variable comprised of psychomotor retardation and fatigue. These symptoms correspond to the motivational deficit of hopelessness depression suggested by Abramson et al. (1989), although they are perhaps more directly interpretable as physical depletion. It is possible that when people attribute negative life events to enduring and pervasive causes within themselves, they are more likely to feel burdened or stuck, hence the feeling of exhaustion and being slowed down. It could also be surmised that attributions of stable and global causes will lead to a sense of hopelessness, which will, in turn, produce a heaviness and decrease in motivation. Aside from psychomotor retardation and fatigue, the other symptoms of hopelessness depression failed to load on a common factor. It is possible that stronger intercorrelations between symptoms would have been obtained if there had been a greater degree of variability in symptom scores or in the endorsement of some symptoms. Recall that the SCID interview requires ratings for each symptom on an ordinal scale, thus limiting variability. This problem was offset to a certain extent by using polychoric correlations in the confirmatory factor analysis, but greater variability in symptom scores would have provided more useful data. Finally, it could be that the symptoms of DSM IV major depression, at least those pertaining to hopelessness depression, are not internally consistent. Future work should focus on dimensional assessment of HD and assess the full range of symptoms included in such measures as the HDSQ ( Metalsky & Joiner, 1997 ). Limitations and Future Directions The current findings need to be replicated in a more representative sample, as our results with graduate students, who are bright and high functioning, may not extend to the overall population. The findings would have greater ecological validity if attributional style had been obtained in real time prior to the development of depressive symptoms. This is related to the problem of postdicting (or predicting backward in time) symptoms of depression. It may have been that the causal attributions assessed in this project resulted from, or were shaped by, an initial episode of depression (a scar). Alloy et al. (2000) point to the research of Burns and Seligman (1989), which suggests that attributional styles are stable over time and would therefore be present during past depressive episodes. Nevertheless, the best test of cognitive vulnerability would ideally involve a prospective design controlling for the history of depression. To date, the most persuasive evidence against the scar hypothesis comes from the prospective results of the CVD Project, in which high-risk individuals were more prone to developing a first onset of both major depression and hopelessness depression and were also more likely to have a recurrence of both of these syndromes ( Alloy et al., in press ; Robinson & Alloy, 2003 ). Another limitation of the current study was the use of the SCID interview for the assessment of HD symptoms. Although this clinical interview is invaluable for diagnostic purposes, it is an imperfect measure of HD. Future investigations of HD symptomatology should consider

11 Sturman et al. 457 modifying the SCID interview to incorporate the full range of hopelessness symptoms by adding items to assess the retarded initiation of voluntary responses and apathy. This will be particularly useful if enough evidence accumulates to suggest that hopelessness depression is a valid depressive subtype, such as atypical or melancholic depression. The taxometric studies to date ( Haslam & Beck, 1994 ; Whisman & Pinto, 1997 ) have not assessed HD symptoms adequately, using items from the BDI; therefore, large-scale taxometric analyses based on reliable and comprehensive measures are clearly needed. To conclude, the major strength of the present study was that HD symptoms were obtained from clinical interview and therefore represent a more reliable assessment of an actual depressive experience. A composite of HD symptoms was correlated with a negative attributional style, but the symptoms did not tend to cluster together in a confirmatory factor analysis, save for a factor composed of fatigue and psychomotor retardation resembling the motivational deficit suggested by Abramson et al. (1989). Insofar as attributional style was related to this factor as well as a composite measure of hopelessness symptoms, the hopelessness model was supported ( Abramson et al., 1989 ). R EFERENCES Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Alloy, L. B. (1989 ). Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96, Alloy, L. B., Abramson, L. Y., Whitehouse, W. G., Hogan, M. E., Panzarella, C., & Rose, D. T. (in press). Prospective incidence of first onsets and recurrences of depression in individuals at high and low cognitive risk for depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. Alloy, L. B. & Clements, C. M. (1998 ). Hopelessness theory of depression: Tests of the symptom component. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22, Alloy, L. B., Just, N., & Panzarella, C. (1997 ). Attributional style, daily life events, and hopelessness depression: Subtype validation by prospective variability and specificity of symptoms. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 21, Alloy, L. B., Whitehouse, W. G., Lapkin, J. B., Abramson, L. Y., Hogan, M. E., Rose, D. T., et al. ( 2000 ). The Temple-Wisconsin Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression Project: Lifetime history of axis I psychopathology in individuals at high and low cognitive risk for depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, Beck, A. T. (1983 ). Cognitive therapy of depression: New perspectives. In P. J. Clayton & J. E. Barrett (Eds.), Treatment of depression: Old controversies and new approaches (pp ). New York : Raven Press. Blatt, S. J., D Afflitti, J. P., & Quinlan, D. M. (1976 ). Experiences of depression in normal young adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85, Browne, M., & Cudek, R. (1993 ). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. Bollen & J. Long (Eds.), Testing structural models. Newbury Park, CA : Sage. Burns, M. O., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1989 ). Explanatory style across the life span: Evidence for stability over 52 years. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, Clark, D., Beck, A., & Brown, G. ( 1992 ). Sociotropy, autonomy, and life event perceptions in dysphoric and non-dysphoric individuals. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 16 (6 ), First, M. B., Spitzer, R. L., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. B. W. ( 1996a ). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM IV Axis I Disorders Patient Edition (SCID I/P, Version 2.0). New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute, Biometrics Research Department. First, M. B., Spitzer, R. L., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. B. W. (1996b ). User s Guide for the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM IV Axis I Disorders Research Version (SCID I, Version 2.0, February 1996 FINAL Version). New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute, Biometrics Research Department. Goldston, D., O Hara, M., & Schartz, H. (1990 ). Reliability, validity, and preliminary normative data for the Inventory to Diagnose Depression in a college population. Psychological Assessment, 2,

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