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1 Name: Date: Class: (Exceptions to Mendelian Genetics Continued) Codominance Firstly, it is important to understand that the meaning of the prefix "co is "together" (i.e. cooperate = work together, coexist = exist together, cohabitate = live together, etc.). Codominance refers to two alleles that both act dominant. Recall that when an organism is heterozygous for a particular trait, the dominant phenotype is expressed. In this complex inheritance pattern called codominance, both alleles are expressed in the heterozygous condition. In other words, neither allele is truly dominant over the other and instead, both appear in the phenotype of the hybrid organism. For example, in some breeds of cattle, when a red cow is mated with a white bull, the offspring are roan (appear pinkish); however, after closer examination, both red and white hairs are found in the coat. H R H R H W H R H W H R H W P: H R H R (Red) x H W H W (White) F1: All Roan (H R H W x H R H W ) H W H R H W H R H W

2 H R H W H R H R H R H R H W H W H R H W H W H W F1 Cross: H R H W (Roan) x H R H W (Roan) F2: 1 Red: 2 Roan: 1 White 25% H R H R, 50% H R H W, 25% H W H W Other examples of codominance include flowers like tulips, in which the petal colour red (C R ) and white (C W ) are codominant. In the heterozygous genotype, the flower distinctly expresses both colours in its phenotype, rather than a mixture of the two. Sickle-Cell Anemia is a disease that affects the red blood cells in humans and their ability to transport oxygen. This condition also follows a codominant inheritance pattern. Typical blood cells are round, but changes in hemoglobin (the protein in red blood cells) in individuals who carry the sickle-cell gene cause those blood cells to change to a sickle (or C ) shape. Sickle-shaped cells do not effectively transport oxygen because they block circulation in small blood vessels. Those who are heterozygous for the trait have both normal and sickle-shaped cells. These individuals can lead relatively normal lives, as the normal blood cells compensate for the sickle-shaped cells.

3 Polygenic Inheritance Many phenotypic traits arise from the interaction of multiple pairs of genes. Such traits, where many genes are responsible for their expression, are called polygenic traits. This results in a constant variation. Traits such as skin colour, height, and fingerprint pattern are polygenic traits. Genetic distribution of skin colour: Epistasis Coat colour in Labrador retrievers can vary from yellow to black. This variety is the result of one allele hiding the effects of another allele, an interaction called epistasis. In other words, epistasis is a condition where a gene on a different chromosome can mask the effect of the other genes. A Labrador s coat colour is controlled by two sets of alleles. One gene controls the deposition of melanin (pigment); the dominant allele B causes deposition of large amounts of melanin, while a recessive allele b causes less deposition. So, a BB or Bb Lab is black, while a bb Lab is brown. Another gene controls whether or not the melanin is deposited at all. The dominant allele E allows deposition, while the recessive allele e does not. So, an ee dog is yellow (no melanin), while an EE or Ee dog has melanin and is not yellow.

4 Combining any combinations of alleles of the B gene with ee results in a yellow dog, rather than a black or brown dog. Dogs that are homozygous recessive ee cannot express any melanin, and therefore the nature of the B genes is irrelevant to coat colour. This kind of relationship between genes is called epistasis. Multiple Allele Inheritance Different from polygenic traits! Polygenic = more than one gene, each with two alleles. Multiple alleles = one gene with more than two alleles. In some traits, there are more than two alleles for its expression. Because of mutations, there can be a third form of a gene on the same location. As you know, a diploid individual can carry only two alleles for any gene. This is because for each gene, one allele is carried on each of the two chromosomes that constitute a pair of homologous chromosomes. But in a population of individuals, more than two alleles of a gene can exist. For example, one individual may have alleles 1 and 2 of a particular gene, while another individual may have alleles 2 and 5 of that same gene. The best known example for multiple alleles involves the gene for blood type in humans. There are three different alleles for blood type located on chromosome 9: I A, I B, and i. A person can only have two of these. I A = codes for type A blood. i = codes for type O blood. I B = codes for type B blood.

5 The following table shows all possible genotypes and phenotypes: Genotype ii I A i I A I A I B i I B I B I A I B Phenotype (Blood Type) O A A B B AB Note that the allele i is recessive to I A and I B. However, I A and I B are codominant; blood type AB results from both I A and I B alleles. Therefore, ABO blood groups are examples of both multiple alleles and codominance.

6 Sample Problem Crosses Involving Multiple Alleles (Blood Typing) A woman with Type A blood whose father was Type O married a man with Type AB blood. What will be the possible genotypes and phenotypes of their children? Step 1: Determine the genotypes of the parents. Type A woman with Type O father: I A i Type AB man: I A I B I A i x I A I B Step 2: Determine the gamete genotypes produced by each parent. I A i I A, i I A I B I A, I B Step 3: Set up and complete a Punnett Square using the gamete genotypes. I A I A I A I A I A i I B I A I B I B i i Genotypes: ¼ I A I A ¼ I A I B ¼ I A i ¼ I B i Phenotypes 2 Type A: 1 Type AB: 1 Type B Step 4: State the genotype and phenotype ratios of the offspring.

7 Exercises Crosses Involving Multiple Alleles (Blood Typing) 1. A woman homozygous for type B blood marries a man who is heterozygous type A. What are the possible genotypes and phenotypes of their children? 2. A man with type O blood marries a woman with type AB blood. What are the possible genotypes and phenotypes of their children? 3. A type B woman whose mother was type O marries a type O man. What are the possible genotypes and phenotypes of their children? 4. A type A woman whose father was type B marries a type B man whose mother was type A. What are the possible genotypes and phenotypes of their children? 5. What is the probability that a couple whose blood types are AB and O will have a type A child? 6. A couple has a child with type A blood. If one parent is type O, what are the possible genotypes of the other parent?

8 Lethal Genes Many genes in an organism s genome are needed for survival. If a mutation in an allele makes one of these genes nonfunctional, or causes it to take on an abnormal, harmful activity, it can cause the organism to die. These are known as lethal genes. A classic example of an allele that affects survival is the lethal yellow allele, a spontaneous mutation in mice that makes their coats yellow. When yellow mice were crossed with regular brown mice, they produced an offspring that was half yellow and half brown. When two yellow mice were crossed with each other, they produced yellow and brown offspring in a ratio of 2:1 where did the last quarter of that ratio go? As it turns out, the mice with A Y A Y genotype died in embryonic development. This can happen in humans as well, but most will result in implantation failure or miscarriage (leads to the death of the embryo before birth). Mutations The slightest change to the chemical structure of a gene is called a mutation. Mutations are constantly occurring and pure chance dictates which gene in which individual mutates. A mutation can cause a very subtle phenotypic effect, or it can be dramatic (i.e. lethal). Many mutations are recessive and are not expressed unless the individual is homozygous. In certain situations, the harmful gene can actually help the individual. For example, as discussed earlier, people homozygous for sickle-cell anemia have a drastically reduced life expectancy. However, people with the heterozygous genotype have a mild form of the disease, but also have an increased resistance to malaria.

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