Jeerachai Kanjanapruthipong Dept. of Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Agriculture Milk Research and Development Center Animal Feed Study and Development

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1 Jeerachai Kanjanapruthipong Dept. of Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Agriculture Milk Research and Development Center Animal Feed Study and Development Center Kasetsart University Kamphaengsaen Campus Nakhon Pathom, Thailand

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3 THE USE OF CASSAVA IN CATTLE FEEDING 1 Foreword In Thailand cassava is little used as feed for cattle. This is probably because the milk producers still have little knowledge or have an incorrect understanding about the use of cassava as a major source of energy in cattle feed, and that cassava is a cheaper source of energy as compared to maize and broken rice. The author aims to show the importance and the value of the use of cassava as a major source of energy that will reduce the cost of production of cattle feed. The author thus prepared this book on the use of cassava as a cattle feed and to give detailed data which are important for the use of cassava as cattle feed, so that the farmers who raise cattle have a correct understanding about the use of cassava, so they will start to use cassava in rations for dairy and beef cattle in greater amounts, if the conditions are appropriate. This, in addition to reducing the production costs of raising cattle, will also add value to the cassava roots being produced in the country. This will give benefit to cassava farmers and will also help improve the economic situation of the country. The preparation of this book was generously supported by the Foundation of the Thai Tapioca Development Institute, for which the author wants to express his gratitude. Jeerachai Kanjanapruthipong November Translated from Thai by R.H. Howeler. 1

4 Table of Contents Foreword 1 Introduction 3 Sources of nutrients for cattle 4 Nutritive value of cassava 6 Advantages of cassava in cattle rations 7 Things to be considered in the use of cassava in cattle rations 8 Recommendations and techniques in the successful use of cassava in animal feed 10 Methods of using cassava in animal feed 14 Examples of cassava-based rations for cattle 16 References 20 2

5 Introduction C assava is one of the important economic crops, which is grown on about million ha in the northeast, in the central part and in the north of Thailand, producing annually million tonnes of fresh roots, of which about 4 million tonnes of fresh roots are used to produce 800,000 tonnes of starch, and the rest is exported as tapioca products such as 4-6 million tonnes of chips and pellets, equivalent to 8-12 million tonnes of fresh roots. The annual export value is not less than 160,000 million baht. From these numbers it is first of all clear that the question of cassava marketing and price are critical issues for the country, and that they are tight up with, or dependent on, the amount of exports. The government realizes that this problem will always exist and they thus established a policy to reduce the area planted to cassava. For example, in 1996 the government set a target to reduce the cassava planted area by 190,000 ha, which will result in a reduction of fresh root production of about 2.6 million tonnes. In any case, when they were considering how much cassava can be produced every year, they probably discussed that this measure to reduce the planted area had still not been very successful. The promotion of the adoption of cassava as an animal feed is likely to be a good way to help alleviate the problem of cassava roots flooding the market, since the cattle raising business is likely to expand continuously and there is a serious problem of a shortage of raw materials for animal feed from abroad. This has resulted in a large increase in the cost of production of cattle. The reduction of the cost of feed for cattle by choosing to use raw materials that can be produced in the country especially cassava is an important strategy that will support the expansion of the cattle producing industry and will help promote the development of a sustainable cattle production business. This, besides helping to reduce the trade imbalance caused by the importation of raw materials for animal feed, will also add value to cassava. If cassava is used in a high proportion in the animal feed ration, Thai cassava producers would no longer be dependent on foreign markets, and the lack of raw materials will also be reduced. 3

6 Sources of Nutrients for Cattle Farmers who raise cattle, and others related to the trade, may have the following doubts: why are cattle, goats and sheep able to sustain themselves by eating grass or only roughage? Why are people, pigs and poultry not able to sustain themselves by eating only roughage? Why are concentrated feed for cattle, goats and sheep mixed with urea? These questions reflect the following: cattle, goats and sheep have special abilities beyond those of humans, pigs and poultry in the sense that they are able to utilize feed that have low nutritive value for the production of milk and meat. This special ability of cattle, goats and sheep is due to the functioning of microbes in their fermentation stomach. Cattle are animals that ruminate, they have four stomachs such as rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum. The rumen and reticulum have microbes that will digest and ferment the feed. Therefore, both these two stomachs are called fermentation stomachs. The omasum has the main function to absorb some mineral nutrient solution and volatile fatty acids. With respect to the abomasum, this has the function to digest the feed that comes out of the omasum. After the cattle eat, the feed is digested and fermented by microbes present in the fermentation stomachs. The microbes use the feed in the fermentation process for their own development and produce volatile fatty acids, which are released. The products from the fermentation process by the microbes are not only the microbial mass, volatile fatty acids and some feed that was not digested by the microbes, which is moved further along the next part of the digestive tract, but these are also the source of nutrients for the sustenance of the body of the cow, which will be summarized as follows: 4

7 1. The microbial mass that grows in the fermentation stomach is moved along to the omasum, abomasum and small intestine. The body of the cow produces enzymes which further digest the microbes to form protein, carbohydrate, fat, mineral salts and vitamins, which will be absorbed in the small intestine to be used as the source of nutrients for the sustenance of the cow s body. Since the proteins are a major part of the microbial mass, these microbes become the protein sources which are important for the production of protein in the milk and muscles. 2. Volatile fatty acids which are the products released by the fermentation process are absorbed by all four stomachs and the small intestine. The body of the cow will utilize these volatile fatty acids as a major energy source to sustain life and produce milk and meat. 3. The part of the feed which was not digested by the microbes is moved further along the digestive tract. When it goes through the true stomach and the small intestine some of the feed will be further digested and will be absorbed in the small intestine where it will become the source of nutrients for the production of milk and meat. The feed that is not digested by bacteria in the fermentation stomach but was digested and absorbed by the small intestine will be called the by-pass nutrients in this book. You can see that the cow s body receives nutrients which are products released by the feed digestion and fermentation process by microbes living in the fermentation stomachs; this consists mainly of bacterial mass, highly volatile fatty acids and by-pass nutrients. The cow s body uses these nutrients for the production of milk and meat. Thus, the correct feeding of cattle must be based on: 1. Give feeds that have the necessary nutrients required by the microbes in the fermentation stomachs. 2. Give feeds that have the necessary nutrients for the production of milk and meat. 5

8 Nutritive Value of Cassava C assava contains rather small amounts of protein, fat and cell walls, but it has a high content of starch and sugars (Table 1). Cassava is thus considered high-energy raw material. Since the energy source in cassava consists of starch and sugars in the proportion of 80:20, the starch and sugars in cassava are easily digestible in the fermentation stomachs of cattle (3,4). The digestion rate in the fermentation stomach has a value of 11.8% per hour (5) and the rate of digestion in 24 hours in the fermentation stomachs is equal to 89% (2). Cassava is therefore considered on easily digestible energy source for the microbes residing in the cow s fermentation stomach. Table 1. Comparison of the quality of feed based on maize, broken rice and cassava. Chemical constituents Maize Broken rice Cassava Protein (%) Starch and sugars (%) easily digestible starch and sugars in the rumen (%) Rate of digestion in the rumen (% per hour) Cell walls (%) Oil (%) Calcium (%) Phosphorus (%) Price (baht/kg) 4.5 a 7.0 a 3.5 b a. Is a rather low price for maize and broken rice b. Is a rather high price for cassava 6

9 Advantages of Cassava in Cattle Rations Cassava is an excellent raw material for production of animal feed. Cattle like to eat feed that contains cassava, especially if it is in powder form. You will find cattle selecting feed that contains cassava over those containing other raw materials. It is easy to digest. Cassava is a raw material that is easy to digest in the rumen. When cassava is used correctly as cattle feed it is a very good energy source, which will increase the development of microbes in the rumen. This will facilitate the utilization of protein from these microbes by the animal. Finally, it will reduce the problem that cattle do not take in enough protein, and help the animal to take in a balanced diet. It is low in cell walls. Cassava is a feedstuff that is rather low in cell walls. That is one of the outstanding characteristics of cassava, because if the feed ration has a low cell wall content, the heat that develops during the digestion process by microbes in the stomach will also be low. Therefore, if cassava is used correctly for feeding cattle, it will be one way to reduce the pressure due to heat formation in the animal and will result in the animal being able to eat more. The result is that the cows will give more milk and grow faster. The feed cost is low. If cassava is used correctly as cattle feed, by using it together with a source of low-cost protein - such as urea, residue of MSG or glutamic acid production - animal feed rations that use cassava as the principal energy source will be cheaper than rations based on maize, sorghum or broken rice. 7

10 Things to be Considered in the Use of Cassava in Cattle Rations W hile cassava has several good points which makes it very suitable as a cattle feed, cassava has also special properties which are different from those of maize and broken rice. Therefore, in the use of cassava as cattle feed the following points that are different should be considered: 1. Use cassava that has been chipped and dried for not less than 3-4 sunny days. This will help reduce the toxic substance cyanide which is present in fresh roots, so that the amount present is not dangerous for cattle. It is absolutely forbidden to feed cattle fresh roots or fresh leaves. 2. Cassava-based rations should be supplemented with molasses or vegetable oil to reduce the powdering of the feed. This is because cassava contains mostly starch and sugars which have a chemical structure that are not complicated. Moreover, cassava contains little oil; therefore, when cassava is milled there is a lot of powder dust formation, which is dangerous for the health of people in the cassava milling area. And when the milled cassava is used as cattle feed in large quantities and given in powdered form, this can cause irritation. The cows will sneeze and will eat less. Supplementation with molasses can markedly reduce the powdering of the feed until the animal will eat again normally. If the feed is pelleted there will be no dust problem and there is no need to add molasses. 3. The use of cassava in cattle feed in suitable quantities and in not too a fine particle size. Because cassava consists of starch and sugars which are easily digested in the rumen it is possible that you get acid conditions in the cow s rumen. When cattle use an energy source consisting of starch and sugars, which are easily digested in large quantities, the microbes in the rumen produce lactic acid. Other types of microbes will than transform lactic acid into propionic acid. The formation and accumulation of lactic and propionic acid, as mentioned, will result in acidosis conditions in the fermentation stomach. This will have several negative effects such as: 3.1 A large part of the bacterial population in the fermentation stomach that can not tolerate acid conditions will be killed. 3.2 The efficiency in digestion and fermentation will decrease. 8

11 3.3 Lactic acid will be rapidly absorbed and passed through the wall of the fermentation stomach. This results in lactic acid poisoning in the blood. 3.4 The excretion of saliva and the movement of the fermentation stomach and small intestines will be reduced. This result in a reduction in the efficiency of nutrient absorption. The amount of milk, milk fat and the growth of the cows will decrease. 3.5 The cow will have infection on the hoof, so-called lameness. 3.6 The liver has been damaged and the cow will subsequently die. The mixing of cassava at a suitable rate in the cattle ration and the use of cassava pieces which are not too small will solve the first problem very well. 4. You should adjust the amount of protein in the cattle ration according to the requirements, because cassava has a low protein content, only 2%. Besides this, the cost of the raw material that needs to be added to increase the protein, needs also to be taken into consideration. If not, it is possible that the cassava-based ration, adjusted for protein content, will be more expensive than normal. 5. The use of cassava as a principal energy source in beef cattle rations may result in the problem of white fat in the meat, which is not acceptable to Thai consumers. For cattle producers who send their meat to the Japanese market this is not a problem because Japanese like to consume meat with white fat. But this problem can be solved by adjusting the cassava-based ration to give it more color by adding maize or the leaves of some crops, such as Leucaena or cassava, to the ration just prior to sending the cattle to market. 9

12 Recommendations and Techniques in the Successful Use of Cassava in Animal Feed 1. The selection of cassava to be bought Cassava should be bought in the form of dry chip pieces because their quality can be easier examined, or if it is used in the form of chips that are already milled it should be bought from a reliable source. Or it should be bought in the form of pellets which are of high quality. The cassava chips to be used should have the following characteristics: - They should have the lowest amount of stem and stalk mixed in. Good quality cassava chips. - They should have a low moisture and high starch content. - They should have the lowest amount of soil and sand mixed in. Freshly made chips or those stored for 2-3 months can be used. If the chips will be stored for a long time, it is advisable to store it in the form of finely milled cassava, put in bags so the weevils will not eat it and it will occupy less space. Poor quality cassava chips. Standards of good quality cassava chips for animal feed: Starch (NFE) not less than 70% Protein not less than 2% Moisture not more than 13% Soil and sand not more than 3% Dust not more than 8% No fungi No insecticide 10

13 2. The milling of cassava chips Before using cassava chips to mix with pelleted and powdered feed for feeding calves, they should be finely milled first (except for chips to be mixed with powdered feed for cattle) by the use of a hammer milltype mill used everywhere (corn grinding mill). It is recommended to use a size of 5-6 milligram (15-18 mm), which can be milled quickly and gives a sufficient fineness to be mixed with animal feed. But as the milling of cassava chips is characterized by a lot of spreading dust, the mill should have a system to retain the dust, such as any of the following: 2.1 the mill has a cyclone tank to keep dust and has a cloth sack to keep dust at the exit of the cyclone tank (Fig. 1) Cloth sack Feed raw material Cyclone Feed mill Hot feed Fan Ground feed Figure 1. Dissipation of heat and removal of dust from the feed mill by cyclone tank. 11

14 2.2 the mill has a bin to catch dust, like a filter bag (Fig. 2) 2.3 use the method of pouring molasses on top of the chips before they go into the mill (Fig. 3), which reduces dust formation by almost 100% and the milled chips will also produce less dust. Feed raw material Hot air Figure 3. Fan Ground feed Feed mill Double filter bags Hot feed Figure 2. Dissipation of heat and removal of dust from the feed mill by the filter bag system. 12

15 3. The addition of molasses in the cassava-based ration Figure 4. b. Install a system to spray molasses at the entrance of the mixing machine (Fig. 5) by attaching a spray at the upper side of the mixers. When the raw material starts feeding into the mixing tank, it will take a certain amount of time; when the raw material has finished entering the spraying starts while the mixing machine is working, normally another 15 minutes for twin screw mixing machines, or minutes for single screw mixing machines. When the molasses is well mixed with the feed then it can be used to feed the animals. One thing that is necessary in the use of cassava as animal feed is to add molasses to the feed because it helps to reduce dust formation of the feed. There will be no irritation and difficulty in breathing while it improves the taste. The animals can eat a lot. The mixing of molasses with the feed should be done as follows: 1. Mixing machine with vertical mixers. The farmers should use the following methods: a. Use the molasses to mix with one of the raw materials of the feed ration, so that when they enter together they will be mixed when they come out. Vertical tank feed mixers Liquid holding tank 2. Mixing machine with horizontal mixers, which are mixing machines of high efficiency. The farmer is able to pour the molasses directly into the mixing tank while the feed is being mixed (Fig. 4). Thus, the mixing machine will mix for about 4-5 minutes so as to allow the thorough mixing of molasses with the feed. The feed that has been mixed with molasses at a level of 3-4% in the feed ration can be stored at room temperature for up to two weeks without getting mouldy or spoiled. Pump Figure 5. Spray system for applying liquids to mix with feed in a vertical tank feed mixers. 13

16 Methods of Using Cassava in Animal Feed B y using cassava as a cattle feed correctly, it can be used at a higher proportion. Cows will be more efficient in the production of milk and meat, and the cost of feed will be reduced. For the correct use of cassava as cattle feed the following things should be done: 1. You should use chips or sliced pieces of cassava and spread them out to dry at least 3-4 days, or you can also use fermented cassava. But it is absolutely forbidden to use fresh cassava roots or leaves. 2. Before milling cassava you should add about 3-5% molasses or add 2-3% vegetable oil, or mill together with about 10% oil-bearing grain such as cotton seed, kapok seed or full-fat soybeans. 3. The use of cassava as a principal energy source in cattle rations, and in case you have to give the cattle large quantities of concentrate, you have to use it in the correct way, so as to prevent acid formation by chosing one of the following methods. 3.1 If cassava is used as the main energy source or give more than 4 kg concentrate per feeding, this should be spread over 4-6 feedings per day. 3.2 You should mix sodium bicarbonate at about 0.7% in rations that use cassava as the principal energy source. 3.3 You should use the chemical zeolite at about 1-2% in rations that use cassava as the main energy source. 3.4 You should use the chemical rumencin or virginiamycin at about 30 mg in rations that use cassava as the main energy source, but you can not use rumencin or virginiamycin for cows giving milk. These can be used only for beef cattle, young cows and dry cows. 4. Due to the fact that cassava has a low protein content, you have to select a protein source that is easily digestible in the fermentation stomach, together with cassava which contains easily digestible starch and sugars. This is an important principle in the efficient use of cassava. The protein source that is easily digestible in the fermentation stomach and cheap, which can be recommended to be given together with cassava, is urea. 14

17 Cattle producers don t like to use urea in cattle feed because they understand that urea is a low quality protein source. If you mix urea with cattle feed the cows will give less milk and if you don t mix the feed with urea thoroughly the cows might die due to urea poisoning. This is because urea is transformed rapidly into ammonium in the fermentation stomach. If the feed contains an energy source that is slowly digestible, the bacteria in the fermentation stomach are not able to take ammonium (produced from the break-down of urea) to make bacterial protein. The excessive ammonium will be absorbed via the walls of the rumen and be carried into the blood stream. The liver has the function to change ammonium into urea and excretes it into the urinary tract. If the level of ammonium that was absorbed through the stomach wall was high and if the liver can not transform all this ammonium into urea the cow might die due to ammonium poisoning (which cattle producers call urea poisoning). For the correct use of urea in cattle feed rations, the cattle producer has to consider that an energy source which has a lot of starch and sugars will be easily digested in the fermentation stomach. If the energy source has a high proportion of easily digestible starch and sugars, then you can also use urea in large amounts in the animal feed ration (Table 2). This is to maintain a balance in the efficient transformation of energy and ammonium into bacterial mass. There will be little ammonium left to be absorbed by the fermentation stomach s wall. Thus, cassava is an energy source which is very appropriate when used together with urea, and this makes that the use of cassava in cattle feed will reduce production costs. 5. The problem of white fat in the meat can be eliminated by using about 50% milled corn instead of cassava in the feed to be used for feeding cattle during the last month before being sent to the market. They will have yellowish fat as required by meat consumers in the country. 15

18 Examples of Cassava-based Rations for Cattle Table 2. Comparison of the amounts used of maize, broken rice and cassava together with urea in concentrate. Maize Urea Broken rice Urea Cassava Urea Percent Maize ration+urea Broken rice ration+urea Cassava ration+urea % protein price (baht/kg) Note: Price of maize 4.50 baht/kg broken rice 7.00 baht/kg cassava 3.50 baht/kg urea 7.70 baht/kg Table 3. Examples of dairy cattle rations with 14% protein. Feed formulation for heifer and dry cows Brewery residue Coconut residue Palm parenchyma residue Mungbean residue Cassava Coarsely milled bran Molasses Urea Vitamins and minerals Total

19 Table 4. Examples of dairy cattle rations with 14% protein. Feed formulation for heifer and dry cows Peanut residue Brewery residue Coconut residue Palm parenchyma residue Total palm residue Mungbean starch residue Mungbean residue Finely milled bran Cassava Molasses Urea Vitamins and minerals Total Table 5. Examples of dairy cattle rations with 16% protein. Feed formulation for milking cows days after giving birth Peanut/soybean meal Brewery residue Cocunut/kapok residue Palm parenchyma/rubber residue Cassava Coarsely milled bran Molasses Urea Vitamins and minerals Total

20 Table 6. Examples of dairy cattle rations with 16% protein. Feed formulation for milking cows days after giving birth Peanut/soybean meal Brewery residue Cocunut/kapok residue Palm parenchyma/rubber residue Total palm residue Mungbean starch residue Mungbean residue Cassava Molasses Urea Vitamins and minerals Total Table 7. Examples of dairy cattle rations with 21% protein. Feed formulation of milking cows days after giving birth Peanut/soybean meal Brewery residue Coconut/kapok residue Palm parenchyma/rubber residue Coarsely milled bran Cassava Molasses Urea Vitamins and minerals Sodium bicarbonate Total

21 Table 8. Examples of dairy cattle rations with 21% protein. Feed formulation of milking cows days after giving birth Peanut/soybean meal Brewery residue Cocunut/kapok residue Palm parenchyma/rubber residue Total palm residue Mungbean starch residue Mungbean residue Cassava Molasses Urea Vitamins and minerals Sodium bicarbonate Total Table 9. Examples of beef cattle rations with 12% protein. Feed formulation for fattening cattle Brewery residue Coconut/kapok residue Palm parenchyma/rubber residue Total palm residue Mungbean residue Cassava Molasses Urea Vitamins and minerals Sodium bicarbonate Sulfur Total

22 Table 10. Examples of beef cattle rations with 12% protein. Feed formulation for fattening cattle Brewery residue Coarsely milled bran Coconut/kapok residue Palm parenchyma/rubber residue Cassava Molasses Urea Vitamins and minerals Sodium bicarbonate Sulfur Total References 1. Agricultural News Center. (1996). Agricultural Statistics of Thailand, Crop Year 1996/97. Office of Agric. Economics, Ministry of Agric. and Cooperatives. Document of Agric. Statistics No. 28/ Kritaphon Sommaat, Metha Wannaphat, Chalong Wachiraphakhon, Saksit Chanthathai and Wechasit Thaburaan. (1991). The ability to digest organic materials in energy feed in the fermentation stomach of cattle and buffalo. Scientific Meeting of Kasetsart University No. 29. Dept. Animal Science. Feb 4-7, Khriangsak Sathaponsiri. (1990). The digestibility of meal from unhusked rice milled with broken rice and cassava in each part of the digestive tract of dairy cows. MSc thesis, Kasetsart University. 4. Thuertchai Wiarasin. (1992). Starch in the feed for ruminants. Document of the Meeting on the Progress of the Project on Animal Feed Crops, held at the National Research and Training Institute on Dairy Cows. Chiangmai province. July 20-24, Tamminga, S., A.M. van Vuuren, C.J. van der Koelen, R.S. Ketelaar and P.L. van der Togt. (1990). Ruminal behaviour of structural carbohydrates, non-structural carbohydrates and crude protein from concentrate ingredients in dairy cows. Netherlands J. Agri. Sci. 38: Schwartz, H.M. and F.M.C. Gilchrist (1975). Microbial interactions with the diet and the host animal. In: Digestion and Metabolism in the Ruminant. Edited by I.W. Donald and A.C.I. Warner. The University of New England Publishing Unit. NSW. Australia. 7. Slyter, L.L. (1976). Influence of acidosis on rumen function. J. Dairy Sci. 43: Williams, V.J. and D.D.S. Mackenzie. (1965). The absorption of lactic acid from the reticulo rumen of the sheep. Australian J. Biol. Sci. 18:

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