The Human Body. The human body is composed of many systems

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1 The Human Body The human body is composed of many systems Circulatory - Immune Respiratory - Digestive Muscular - Nervous Skeletal - Reproductive Lymphatic - Endocrine Integumentary Excretory

2 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.0 The nervous system is made up of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. It senses the environment and coordinates an appropriate response. The core of the nervous system is the brain and the spinal cord. This is called the central nervous system. The central nervous system is protected from injury by bones and by cerebrospinal fluid. The peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves that carry the signals between the central nervous system and the body. It also relays instructions from the brain to other parts of the body to control many of the body s functions and responses. Reflexes are actions that do not require the involvement of the brain: they occur without conscious thought. The spinal cord acts as a short cut for reflexes.

3 The Nervous System

4 How Does Communication Occur? Neurons Nerve cells are called neurons Use electrical signals called impulses to communicate with other cells Nerve a bundle of neurons

5 Types of Neurons Sensory neurons carry impulses from sensory receptors (eye, ear, nose, skin, tongue) to the brain Motor neurons carry impulses from the brain or spinal cord to muscles for movement or glands for hormone secretion Interneurons link the sensory and motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord

6 Parts of The Nervous system Central Nervous System Brain Spinal Cord

7 Parts of The Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Somatic nerves (somatic nervous system) Voluntary Autonomic Nerves (autonomic nervous system) Involuntary Sensory Motor Sympathetic Parasympathetic

8 Musculoskeletal system Muscular system Skeletal System

9 THE MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM 3.8 The musculoskeletal system includes all of the bones in a body and the muscles that make them move. It supports the body and protects delicate organs.

10 Function of the Skeletal System - Protection - protect vital organs in the body (eg. skull protects brain, spine protects spinal cord, ribs protect heart and lungs - Blood-cell production - bone marrow in large bones produce blood cells and releases them into the blood stream.

11 Function of the Skeletal System Mineral storage bones made up of calcium and phosphorus giving bones strength and rigidity. Support for your muscles Movement

12 Components of the Skeletal System The skeleton is composed of 3 types of connective tissue. Bone Ligaments Cartilage

13 Bone The human skeleton is composed of 206 bones Hard and dense tissue Bone is composed of bone cells within a matrix of minerals (calcium, phosphorus) and collagen fibers If your diet is not high in minerals, your body will absorb Ca and P from your bones causing them to weaken

14 Structure of Bone - Canals inside the bones contain nerves and blood vessels - Only a small percentage of the bone tissue is actually living

15 Ligaments (connect bone to bone) - are strong tough elastic bands of connective tissue that can stretch - Hold bones and movable joints together - surround the joint to give support and limit the joint's movement.

16 Cartilage hard but slippery tissue that covers the ends of bones where they meet to form a joint. made up of cells and collagen fibres and is wear-resistant helps reduce the friction of movement by allowing bones to glide over one another Absorbs the energy from the shock of physical movement Found in: Ears, nose, esophagus, joints, disks between vertebrae

17 Muscles Bones need muscles to move them There are about 600 muscles in the human body Made up of bundles of long cells called muscle fibres that contain specialized proteins

18 Tendons (connect muscle to bone) another type of tough connective tissue on each side of a joint attach to muscles that control movement of the joint.

19 Cardiac Muscle Makes heart beat involuntary Smooth Muscle Types of Muscles involuntary Found in lining of organs (eg. stomach, esophagus, uterus, walls of blood vessels) Skeletal Muscle Attached to bone voluntary

20 Antagonistic Muscles One contracts while the other relaxes Work together to move bones Ex. Bicep and tricep

ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION The first successful organ transplant was of a kidney in 1954.

21 ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION The first successful organ transplant was of a kidney in Since then the list has grown to include the heart, liver, lungs, pancreas, and intestines. A number of tissues can also be transplanted. See diagram below.

22 What is Xenotransplantation -Xenotransplantation is the transfer of organs, tissues, and cells from one species to another -There are only a few successful cases of Xenotransplantation because of the foreign organs and the immune system. -common animals used for xenotransplantation are pigs, apes, or baboons, simply because they are genetically closest to us.

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Air travels through the trachea to the lungs. The trachea contains many epithelial cells that have hairlike projections called cilia.

24 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Air travels through the trachea to the lungs. The trachea contains many epithelial cells that have hairlike projections called cilia. Cilia help filter out and remove foreign materials (such as dust) that might otherwise enter the bronchial tubes and lungs. The main purpose of the respiratory system is to exchange gases. Breathing brings air into and out of the lungs, so that gas exchange can occur. Oxygen enters the bloodstream in the lungs by diffusion, and carbon dioxide leaves in the same way. This gas exchange specifically takes place in the alveoli, which are surrounded by capillary networks containing blood. When the blood arrives at the cells, the oxygen diffuses from the blood into the cells. At the same time, carbon dioxide diffuses from the cell into the blood.

25 Gas Exchange O 2 and CO 2 have only to diffuse through 2 thin walls: capillaries and alveoli O 2 that we breathe in diffuses from the alveoli into the blood stream and CO 2 leaves the blood stream through the alveoli and the air we breathe out

26 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Review the following diagram to locate the components of the human respiratory system: nasal cavity mouth trachea Bronchi alveoli lungs diaphragm

27 Involves the diaphragm (a large sheet of muscle underneath the lungs) and the muscles between the ribs. Is an involuntary process that we can override while talking but only temporarily. It is controlled by a part of the human brain that detects the concentration of CO 2 in our blood Breathing

28 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM The circulatory system in humans is the organ system that transports oxygen and nutrients throughout the body and carries away wastes. The system is made up of blood, the heart, and blood vessels.

29 Function of The Circulatory System - Moves oxygen from the lungs to all the body cells - Moves carbon dioxide from the body cells to the lungs - Moves nutrients from the small intestine to the body cells - Moves waste materials from the body cells to the kidneys and skin to be removed

30 The Blood Blood is a type of connective tissue that circulates through your body, it consists of 4 components: Red Blood Cells (RBC) White Blood Cells (WBC) Platelets Plasma Did you know - It takes about 20 seconds for a RBC to circulate the entire body

31 Blood: A type of connective tissue is made of 4 elements: Red blood cells. White blood cells. Platelets. Plasma.

32 Composition of blood

33 Components of the Blood: Red Blood Cells -make up approx. 45% of blood volume -contain haemoglobin (protein that carries O 2 ) -have no nucleus (example of cell specialization) White Blood Cells -make up less than 1% of blood volume -function is to fight infection -have a nucleus Platelets -are actually just fragments of cells -make up less than 1% of blood volume -function is to clot blood Plasma -liquid that suspends the other 3 components -makes up approx. 55% of blood volume -contains dissolved materials

34 Let s follow the path of one red blood cell.

35 Types of Blood Vessels (how the blood is carried): 1) Arteries: blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart heart pumps blood with force so arterial blood pressure is higher than venous blood pressure due to higher pressure, artery walls are thicker than those of veins 2) Veins: blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart contents are under low pressure so walls are thinner than those of arteries 3) Capillaries: tiny blood vessels with very thin walls to allow substances to diffuse between the blood and the body fluids and tissues are the blood vessels that link arteries and veins oxygen and nutrients diffuse from the blood into the surrounding tissues carbon dioxide and other wastes diffuse from tissues into the blood

36 The Heart (a pump): Made of 3 types of tissue: - Cardiac Muscle Tissue - Nerve Tissue - Connective Tissue Consists of two chambers: - Atria (left and right atrium) - Ventricles (left and right ventricles)

37 Let s explore the flow through the heart.

38 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The digestive system is the organ system that takes in food, digests it, and excretes the remaining waste. The digestive system is made up of the digestive tract and accessory organs. The parts of the digestive system in humans are shown here. Know the parts!

39 THE DIGESTIVE TRACT The Tube in which the food travels through as it is digested (mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus)

40 THE ACCESSORY ORGANS (Liver, Gall bladder, Pancreas)

41 Mouth -Breaks down food mechanically (teeth and tongue) -Also breaks apart food chemically with saliva (enzymes and water) -Saliva is produced in the epithelial tissue that lines the mouth

42 Esophagus -A tube connecting your mouth to your stomach -Surrounded by smooth muscle tissue which can contract/relax without conscious thought -Nerve tissue controls muscle contractions -Contractions slowly move along food

43 Stomach -Holds and churns food -Lining of inside of stomach has cells that produce digestive enzymes and acid -Layers of smooth muscle tissue contract to mix stomach contents

44 Small Intestine -After stomach in digestive tract -6m long, and narrow -Goblet cells secrete mucus -Does most digestion of food, and most absorption of nutrients

45 Large Intestine -1.5m long, and wider then small intestine -Absorbs water after digestion -Waste left over goes to rectum, then anus, and out!

46 Accessory organs Liver Produces bile (which breaks down fat in food) Gallbladder Where bile is stored Pancreas Creates an enzyme called insulin. Insulin helps regulate the concentration of glucose sugar in our blood, and helps glucose enter our cells.

STEM CELLS AND CELLULAR DIFFERENTIATION Cellular differentiation is the process that produces specialized cells. Differentiation is directed by the genetic information encoded inside the cell s DNA.

47 STEM CELLS AND CELLULAR DIFFERENTIATION Cellular differentiation is the process that produces specialized cells. Differentiation is directed by the genetic information encoded inside the cell s DNA. It is passed from parent to offspring 3.2 As shown in the diagram above, a animal cell can differentiate itself into many cell types. This type of cell is called a stem cell. Stem cells generally occur in clumps that differentiate into different tissue layers. There are two types of stem cells. Embryonic stem cells can differentiate into any kind of cell. Tissue (also called adult ) stem cells exist within specialized tissue and are only able to differentiate into certain types of cells.

48 Cord Blood Cell Banking The blood found in the umbilical cord following birth is a rich source of tissue stem cells that can differentiate into any blood cell. These cells are easy to obtain and can be banked (frozen) in case it is needed by the child later in life. Uses might include illnesses such as childhood leukemia. This service is sold to parents by private companies. The parent pays to have their child s cord blood stored in case it is needed later by the child or a sibling.

49 Embryonic Stem Cells

50 Adult Stem Cell Embryonic Stem Cell

51 Endocrine System The endocrine system is made up of glands that produce and secrete hormones (chemical substances produced in the body that regulate the activity of cells or organs). These hormones regulate the body's growth, metabolism (the physical and chemical processes of the body), and sexual development and function. The hormones are released into the bloodstream and may affect one or several organs throughout the body. Hormones are chemical messengers created by the body. They transfer information from one set of cells to another to coordinate the functions of different parts of the body. The major glands of the endocrine system are the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pineal body, and the reproductive organs (ovaries and testes). The pancreas is also a part of this system; it has a role in hormone production as well as in digestion.

52 Endocrine System Hormones

53 Function of the Endocrine Glands Pituitary Gland: "master gland" because of its great influence on the other body organs. Its function is complex and important for overall well-being. Hypothalamus: releases hormones that start and stop the release of pituitary hormones. Thymus is a gland needed early in life for normal immune function. Secretes hormones which help develop the immune system. Pineal Gland: produces melatonin, which controls sleep patterns. Testes: only in male, produce the hormone testosterone. Testosterone helps a boy develop and then maintain his sexual traits. Ovaries: only in females, produce estrogen and progesterone. These hormones are responsible for developing and maintaining female sexual traits, as well as maintaining a pregnancy. Thyroid: secretes hormones that control metabolism. Adrenal Glands: secretes hormones that help the body control blood sugar, increase the burning of protein and fat, and respond to stressors like fever, major illness, and injury, control blood volume and help to regulate blood pressure, produces some sex hormones (for some secondary sex characteristics in both men and women). Parathyroid Glands: make hormones that help control calcium and phosphorous levels in the body (important for bone growth).

54 Example Hormones Oxytocin from the Pituitary gland. Controls labour and milk production for nursing mothers. Antidiurectic hormone (ADH) from the Pituitary gland. Increases water absorption in the body (kidneys). Adrenaline Produced in the adrenal glands. Adrenaline works with noradrenaline to produce the "fight or flight" response by increasing the supply of oxygen to the brain and muscles, dilating the pupils, and suppressing bodily functions not useful in an emergency situation (such as digestion). Growth Hormone (GH) from the pituitary gland. GH stimulates growth during childhood and also stimulates cell reproduction, which helps adults maintain muscle and bone mass.

55 What is cloning? Cloning is the process of creating a genetically identical copies of biological matter. This may include genes, cells, tissues, or entire organisms.

56 The 3 types of Cloning Molecular- making identical copies of DNA molecules Reproductive- making an identical copy of an entire organism Therapeutic- the cloning of human embryos for the product of some stem cells. The embryos are eventually destroyed in the process

DNA (Molecular) CLONING Making identical copies of DNA molecules Transferring a DNA fragment of interest from one organism to a self-replicating genetic element such as a bacterial plasmid.

57 DNA (Molecular) CLONING Making identical copies of DNA molecules Transferring a DNA fragment of interest from one organism to a self-replicating genetic element such as a bacterial plasmid. The DNA of interest can then be transmitted into a foreign host cell. Here is will make copies of the DNA. Plasmid : A genetic structure in a cell that can replicate independently of the chromosomes, typically a small circular DNA strand in the cytoplasm of a bacterium or protozoan Bacterium : A member of a large group of unicellular microorganisms that have cell walls but lack organelles and an organized nucleus, including some that can cause disease

Therapeutic cloning Also uses somatic cell nuclear transfer process. The somatic cell would be taken from a patient who requires a stem cell transplant to treat health issues.

58 Therapeutic cloning Also uses somatic cell nuclear transfer process. The somatic cell would be taken from a patient who requires a stem cell transplant to treat health issues. The DNA from the somatic cell is inserted into an unfertilized egg The egg now contains the patient's genetic material, or instructions It is forced to divide and shortly thereafter forms a cluster of cells known as a blastocyst cells in the inner cell mass are isolated and then used to create embryonic stem cell lines installed into the patient where they are needed in the tissues, does structure and function as needed.

60 Reproductive Cloning:

61 Male Reproductive System

62 Scrotum The testes are inside a sac called the scrotum. It hangs outside the body, keeping the sperm cool. Sperms only develop properly in cool conditions.

63 Penis The penis must be erect for the semen to pass out. This happens when blood is pumped into special spongy tissue in the penis.

64 Sperm During an ejaculation semen is pumped out of the penis due to a contraction of the muscles around the sperm tubes. Each ejaculation makes about a teaspoon of semen but this can contain: 500 million sperms.

65 Female System

66 Ovaries The ovaries are the female sex organs. They produce the eggs. They also make the female hormones estrogen and progesterone

67 Fallopian tubes An egg is released about every 28 days. The egg passes out of the ovary and moves into one of the fallopian tubes. This is called ovulation and is when an egg may become fertilized.

68 Uterus The egg slowly moves down towards the uterus (womb). If sperms are present in the fallopian tubes the egg will be fertilised. Baby grows here. If the egg is not fertilised it will dies after about a day.

69 Cervix The lower end of the uterus has a ring of muscle called the cervix. It leads to a muscular tube called the vagina that opens to the outside of the body.

70 Sperm *Smaller than Egg *Swims through liquid (semen) Head, middle, and flagellum (tail) Hapliod (23 chromosomes) Egg *Larger than Sperm *Cannot move on its own *Round shape (like a ball) Haploid (23 chromosomes)

71 Fertilization Sperm enters the egg and then continues and enters the egg nucleus. The sperm nuclei and the egg nuclei pair together to form a Zygote.

The Human Body. The human body is composed of many systems. We have covered 8 in this course.

The Human Body. The human body is composed of many systems. We have covered 8 in this course. The Human Body The human body is composed of many systems. We have covered 8 in this course. Circulatory - Immune Respiratory - Digestive Musculoskeletal - Nervous Urinary - Endocrine THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.0