Module 2:! Functional Musculoskeletal Anatomy A! Semester 1! !!! !!!! Hard Tissues, Distal Upper Limb & Neurovascular Supply of Upper Limb!
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1 Functional Musculoskeletal Anatomy A Module 2: Hard Tissues, Distal Upper Limb & Neurovascular Supply of Upper Limb Semester 1 1
2 18. Bone Tissue & Growth of Bones 18.1 Describe the structure of bone tissue in terms of its organic and inorganic components and their properties Bone Tissue: Dense, supportive connective tissue Contains specialised cells Produces solid matrix of calcium salt deposits (INORGANIC) Around collagen fibres (ORGANIC) Bone (osseous) tissue structure: Dense matrix minerals osteocytes (mature bone cells) protein Covering - Periosteium covers outer surface of bone consists of outer fibres & intercellular layers Bone Matrix: Minerals 2/3 of bone matrix is calcium phosphate - Ca3(PO4)2 Reacts with calcium hydroxide to form crystals of hydroxyapatite (dense structure - hardness/toughness of bone) Which incorporates other calcium salts & ions Used to repair bones Matrix Proteins 1/3 bone matrix = collagen fibres Resilience - stops brittle bones. Reasonably flexible Bone cells 2% of bone mass 4 types: Osteocytes Mature bone cells that maintain bone matrix Live in lacunae (chamber/pit) Sit between layers (lamellae) in matrix Connect by cytoplasmic extensions through canaliculi in lamellae Canaliculi = nerve-type structures - connections between different osteocytes to communicate (usually signals to produce more osteoblasts if bone strengthening is needed) Do NOT divide Two major functions: 1. Maintain protein & mineral content of matrix 2. Help repair damaged bone 2
3 18.2 Describe the structure of the two types of bone tissue (spongy & compact) in terms of their specific function Compact Bone Structure - Osteon (Haversian system) is the basic unit (microscopic) - closely packed making it very dense - Osteocytes arranged in concentric lamellae (rings) - Around a central canal containing blood vessels (surounded by endoseium) - Perforating (Volkmann s) canals - Perpendicular to central canal - Brings blood to centre of osteon (into bone & marrow) - Blood supply in remodelling bone is extremely important - Circumfrential Lamellae - Lamellae wrapped around the long bone - Binds osteons together - Interstitial lamellae - in between osteons - Individual lamellae in osteon arranged in collagen fibres which are perpendicular to each other. Can resist multiple sheer forces = structurally robust - Matrix is solidly filled with organic ground substance & inorganic salts with lacunae containing osteocytes) - Membrane of compact bone: - Periosteum on the outside - Covers all bones except parts enclosed in joint capsules - Made up of an outer, fibrous layer & an inner, cellular layer - Perforating fibres = collagen fibres of the periosteum. Connect with collagen fibres in bone and with fibres of joint capsules; attach tendons & ligaments - Functions: - Isolates bone from surrounding tissues - Provides route for circulatory & nervous supply - Participates in bone growth & repair - Endosteum on the inside - Incomplete cellular layer - Lines medullary (marrow) cavity - Covers trabecular of spongy bone - Lines central canals - Contains osteoblasts, osteoprogenitor cells & osteoclasts - Active in bone growth & repair Compact Bone Function: Used in weight bearing Protect the organs Support the body Provide levers for the body Store minerals Visible on the outside, dense tissue 4
4 18.4 Briefly describe the mechanisms by which long bones grow in length & diameter Bone Development - Human bones grow until about age 25 - Osteogenesis = bone formation - Ossification = the process of replacing other tissues with bone - Ostoblasts lay down new bone - New bone is laid down around the circumference of the shaft in order to increase its diameter - The deepest layers of bone are being removed, maintaining a reasonable thickness of cortical bone & enlarging marrow cavity Calcification: - The process of depositing calcium salts - Occurs during bone ossification & in other tissues Ossification x2 forms: 1. Endochondral Ossification 2. Intramembranous Ossification Endochondral Ossification - Ossifies bone that originates as hyaline cartilage (which is most bones) ie. totally dependent on hyaline cartilage - 6 main steps involved: 1. Chondrocytes secrete enzymes (alkaline phosphatase) to begin the process of mineralization/ calcification (calcium phosphate react with other minerals & crystalline structure formed inside hyaline cartilage) 2. Bone collar formation. Blood vessels infiltrate & osteoblasts secrete osteoid. 3. Internally, chondrocytes enlarge & secrete vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) - promotes BV invasion - bringing osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts & osteoclasts into cartilage. Collagen secreted inside 4. Medullary cavity formation - through osteoclasts breaking down bone on inside. Osteoblasts laying down new bone on outside. 5. Same process occurs in secondary ossification sites: Epiphysis (no medulla though). This only occurs during birth & puberty - growth spurts 6. 8
5 Summary: Bone Development = ossification o Occurs in 2 distinct phases with about 10 days lag in between 1. Formation of un-mineralised intercellular matrix (osteoid) which occurs as the bone matrix is secreted by osteocytes 2. Mineralisation of the matrix - uses PG s, glycoproteins and phosphoproteins which influence the mineralisation of bones. They form crystals in the matrix (K and Ca ions) both along & between collagen fibres o Occurs from the hyaline cartilage model (hyaline cartilage = 70% water = good load bearing tissue) Blood Supply of Mature Bones 1. Nutrient Artery & Vein - Single pair of large blood vessels - Enter diaphysis through the nutrient foramen - Femur has more than one pair 2. Metaphyseal Vessels - Supply the epiphyseal cartilage - Where bone growth occurs 3. Periosteal Vessels - Blood to superficial osteons Bone Remodelling - Secondary ossification centres - Adult skeleton maintains itself - involving osteocytes, osteoblasts & osteoclasts - Replaces mineral reserves - Recycles & renews bone matrix 5-7% per week - If deposition is greater than removal, bone gets stronger - If removal is faster than replacement, bone gets weaker Effects of Exercise - Mineral recycling allows bones to adapt to stress - heavily stressed bones become thicker & stronger - Bone degenerates quickly - up to 1/3 of bone mass can be lost in a few weeks of inactivity Effects of Hormones & Nutrition - Dietary source of calcium & phosphate salts (+ small magnesium, fluoride, iron & manganese) - Hormone calitriol: - made in kidneys - helps absorb calcium & phosphorus from digestive tract - synthesis requires vitamin D3 - Growth hormone and thyroxine stimulate bone growth 10
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