Understanding University Students Implicit Theories of Willpower for Strenuous Mental Activities

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1 Understanding University Students Implicit Theories of Willpower for Strenuous Mental Activities Success in college is largely dependent on students ability to regulate themselves independently (Duckworth & Seligman, 2005). However, many students experience self-regulatory failure. Students who view their self-control abilities as limited (i.e., a fixed willpower mindset) may work harder to conserve their mental energy and thereby experience ego-depletion, whereas those who believe that willpower is not limited might have longer staying power (Job, Dweck, & Walton, 2010). Empirical tests of this assumption have been based on the Implicit Theories of Willpower for Strenuous Mental Activities Scale (ITW-M), the development of which is not well understood. We therefore sought to investigate how university students respond to items from the ITW-M both quantitatively, by asking students to respond to the ITW-M rating scale, and qualitatively, by asking students to explain the items meaning in their own words. Methods In Phase 1, undergraduate students (N = 536) at a large Southeastern U.S. university responded to the six-item ITW-M (Table 1). Item-level descriptive statistics were examined, and confirmatory factor analysis was used to test whether the factor structure matched that reported by Napolitano and Job (2018). In Phase 2, cognitive interviews were conducted with students (N = 31) enrolled at the same institution. In individual semi-structured interviews, participants were asked to respond to each item and explain what the item was asking in their own words. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and reviewed for themes (Fowler, Lloyd, Cosenza, & Wilson, 2016). Results Descriptive analyses revealed skewness among scale items, and low but acceptable reliability (a =.74). Using ML estimation in Mplus, we fit a single-factor model for the 6-item ITW-M specifying a second method factor to account for error associated with reverse-coded items. A CFA of the unidimensional ITW-M with method factor produced acceptable model fit (Table 2). Cognitive interview data, on the other hand, revealed considerable variability in how participants interpreted the ITW-M items. Themes that emerged indicated difficulty comprehending item meaning, the context-dependent nature of willpower, cognitive load induced by semantic complexity, and the possibility that certain items assess motivation constructs other than willpower mindset (Table 3). Conclusions The ITW-M scale is a popular measure used to assess lay beliefs about self-control across a variety of populations and contexts. Researchers have called for further examination of the scale s psychometric properties in diverse contexts (Napolitano & Job, 2018). Preliminary results examining the psychometric properties of the ITW-M scale in our sample of college students was acceptable; however, our cognitive interview analyses showed considerable variability in how students interpreted items. Ironically, many students reported feeling mentally taxed by trying to understand the items meaning. Others expressed confusion or attempted to situate their responses in a given context (e.g., physical vs. academic pursuits). Given these diverse interpretations, simplification and contextualization of scale items is recommended. Findings from this study point to the need for motivation researchers to assess the meaning participants assign to items before assuming that the items accurately reflect common psychological constructs (Murphy & Alexander, 2000).

2 References Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., & Tice, D. M. (2007). The strength model of self-control. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(6), Duckworth, A. L., & Seligman, M. E. (2005). Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic performance of adolescents. Psychological Science, 16(12), Fowler, F., Lloyd, S., Cosenza, C., & Wilson, I. (2016). Coding cognitive interviews: An approach to enhancing the value of cognitive testing for survey question evaluation. Field Methods, 28(1), Fowler Jr, F. J., Lloyd, S. J., Cosenza, C. A., & Wilson, I. B. (2016). Coding cognitive interviews: an approach to enhancing the value of cognitive testing for survey question evaluation. Field Methods, 28(1), Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural equation modeling: a multidisciplinary journal, 6(1), Job, V., Dweck, C. S., & Walton, G. M. (2010). Ego depletion Is it all in your head? Implicit theories about willpower affect self-regulation. Psychological Science, 21(11), Job, V., Walton, G. M., Bernecker, K., & Dweck, C. S. (2015). Implicit theories about willpower predict self-regulation and grades in everyday life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 108(4), 637. Murphy, P. K., & Alexander, P. A. (2000). A motivated exploration of motivation terminology. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, Napolitano, C. M., & Job, V. (2018). Assessing the Implicit Theory of Willpower for Strenuous Mental Activities Scale: Multigroup, across-gender, and cross-cultural measurement invariance and convergent and divergent validity. Psychological Assessment, 30(8).

3 Table 1 Implicit Theories of Willpower for Strenuous Mental Activities The next few questions have been written to investigate your ideas about willpower. Willpower is what you use to resist temptations, to stick to your intentions, and to remain in strenuous mental activity. There are no right or wrong answers. We are interested in your ideas. Using the scale below, please indicate how much you agree or disagree with each of the following statements. (1) Strongly Agree (2) Agree (3) Disagree (4) Strongly Disagree 1. Strenuous mental activity exhausts your resources, which you need to refuel afterwards (e.g. through taking breaks, doing nothing, watching television, eating snacks).* 2. After a strenuous mental activity, your energy is depleted and you must rest to get it refueled again.* 3. When you have been working on a strenuous mental task, you feel energized and you are able to immediately start with another demanding activity. 4. Your mental stamina fuels itself. Even after strenuous mental exertion, you can continue doing more of it. 5. When you have completed a strenuous mental activity, you cannot start another activity immediately with the same concentration because you have to recover your mental energy again.* 6. After a strenuous mental activity, you feel energized for further challenging activities. *Reverse-coded item.

4 Table 2 Confirmatory Factor Analysis Using ML Estimator for the ITW-M Model c! df p RMSEA RMSEA 90% CI CFI TLI SRMR ML [.012,.089] Note. Fit criteria (Hu & Bentler, 1998): p <.05, RMSEA <.05, CFI >.90, TLI >.90, SRMR <.08; ML = Maximum Likelihood; MLR = Robust Maximum Likelihood; RMSEA = Root Mean Square Error of Approximation; CFI = Comparative Fit Index; TLI = Tucker Lewis Index.

5 Table 3 Coding Themes and Sample Responses to Cognitive Interviews in Phase 2 Item Meaning Comprehension It was kind of difficult [to respond]. I had to read over it a few times to understand what is was saying. (Interview 27) I mean, I m assuming it means you resources I mean, I don t know. It s kind of vague, I think, but just your motivation? Not like physical resources, but mental focus, motivation, energy, et cetera. (Interview 20) I think I understood it the way they're asking but if it was given to international [students] that don't really have a lot of educational psychology backgrounds or any psychology background they would probably get lost. (Participant 24) Context I don t know. This is hard. For some reason, some questions bring to mind times when I have been able to keep going and some questions bring to mind times when I haven t. (Participant 11) Again just because the idea of strenuous mental activity at least in my mind come with such a range of what it could be, I very much don t know whether it s going to be the kind of thing that would make you feel energized or the exact opposite. (Participant 28) I think it depends on the task and depends on the amount of motivation that you have for that specific task. So, if I'm doing an assignment, then flipping to another assignment, it depends how early those deadlines are, how extrinsically motivated I am to do those. (Participant 30) Semantic Complexity Cognitive Load It wasn t easy. It was longer than the other questions. I kind of had to think about what mental stamina was. (Participant 15) I still had to think about it because they re not simple. They are simple questions but the way they re worded makes you think about them more. (Participant 10) Exhausting your resources. I think that s the part that s a little confusing, which I think means exhausting your brain in the sense of you re just like, when you re done you re like, I can t think about anything else anymore? (Participant 21) Construct Overlap I think it just depends on what kind of activities, too and what kind of challenge you re facing Like if I did well [on exam] I would have more confidence to do the next challenge. (Participant 14) I feel like that s an interest thing. If I m more interested in certain subjects I d be more willing to complete more projects under that topic than I would something else that I don t exactly find interesting. (Participant 19) I think of, Oh, well, I did this one thing and it was pretty difficult so that means that I am capable of doing something else that is pretty difficult. (Particpant 18)

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