AN EXAMINATION OF FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CAREER DECISION-MAKING CERTAINTY IN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS. Clark Eugene Barrow

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1 AN EXAMINATION OF FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CAREER DECISION-MAKING CERTAINTY IN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS by Clark Eugene Barrow Ed.S., University of West Florida, 2006 M.Ed., University of West Florida, 2004 B.S., University of West Florida, 2001 A dissertation submitted to the School of Education College of Professional Studies The University of West Florida In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education 2009

2 Copyright 2004 Clark Eugene Barrow

3 The dissertation of Clark Eugene Barrow is approved: Robert A. Markowitz, Ph.D., Committee Member Date Wally S. Holmes-Bouchillon, Ph.D., Committee Member Date Carla J. Thompson, Ed.D., Committee Chair Date Accepted for the Department/Division: David A. Stout, Ph.D., Chair Date Accepted for the University: Richard S. Podemski, Ph.D., Dean of Graduate Studies Date

4 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES... vii LIST OF FIGURES... viii ABSTRACT... ix CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION... 1 A. Influence of State Laws on Career Choices... 2 B. Importance of Identifying Influencing Variables... 4 C. Workforce Population Changes... 5 D. Statement of the Problem... 7 E. A Gap of Information... 8 F. Rationale for Selection of Theories... 8 G. Purpose of the Study... 9 H. Research Questions and Hypotheses I. Assumptions J. Limitations CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE A. Theoretical Framework B. Dysfunctional Thinking Decision-Making Confusion Commitment Anxiety External Conflict Career Indecision C. Intrinsic Influences on Career Decision-Making Attitude Anxiety Aptitude, Ability, and Skills Depression Interest Career Satisfaction Permanence of Interest Scores Career Maturity Career Pursuit Value iv

5 11. Occupational Knowledge Personality Self-Efficacy Self-Knowledge D. Extrinsic Influences on Career Decision-Making Employment Experiences over Time by Gender Employment Stereotyping and Biases by Gender Ethnicity Biases Personality-Environmental Fit Socioeconomic Status Sociostructural Influences Technological Advancements Aspirations of Important Others E. Models and Mentoring F. Occupational Titles G. Testing Within Public Schools H. Discussion CHAPATER III. METHODOLOGY A. Research Design Population and Sample Sampling Procedures B. Instrumentation Quantitative Instruments Qualitative Instruments C. Data Collection Procedures Quantitative Data Analysis Data Screening for Outlier Data Hypothesis Testing D. Qualitative Data Analysis E. Design Limitations F. Summary CHAPTER IV. RESULTS A. Analysis of Data Results for the Null Hypotheses B. Qualitative Analysis of Students Comments Positive Influences Negative Influences C. Summary of Emergent Themes D. Teachers and Guidance Counselors Thoughts E. Summary CHAPTER V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS A. Summary of Procedures B. Summary of Results v

6 C. Qualitative Analysis D. Conclusions E. Discussion F. Recommendations G. Problems for Further Study REFERENCES APPENDIXES A. Institutional Review Board Approval B. School District Research Request Form C. Qualification Level Approval from Instruments Copyright Holder vi

7 LIST OF TABLES 1. Number of Students by Gender, Grade Level, and Ethnicity Intercorrelations Between Predictors of Career Decision-Making Certainty Multiple Regression Analysis Summary for Variables Predicting Students Career Decision-Making Certainty Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for the Predictor Variables by Gender vii

8 LIST OF FIGURES 1. Conceptual model of relationships of constructs within the theory of vocational personalities and work environments (Holland, 1997) Conceptual model of relationships of constructs within the theory of vocational interest and vocational choice (Strong, 1943) Conceptual model of relationships of constructs within the theory of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997) Conceptual model of relationships of constructs within the theory of cognitive information processing (Sampson et al., 1996) Conceptual model of relationships of theoretical framework constructs and how they relate to the independent variable of Decision-Making Confusion Conceptual model of relationships of theoretical framework constructs and how they relate to the independent variable of Commitment Anxiety Conceptual model of relationships of theoretical framework constructs and how they relate to the independent variable of External Conflict Conceptual model of relationships of theoretical framework constructs and how they relate to the independent variable of Career Indecision Conceptual model of influences of independent variables on the dependent variable of Career Decision-Making Certainty Conceptual model of findings of influences of independent variables on the dependent variable of Career Decision-Making Certainty viii

9 ABSTRACT AN EXAMINATION OF FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CAREER DECISION-MAKING CERTAINTY IN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS Clark Eugene Barrow A mixed methods ex post facto study was used to examine intrinsic and extrinsic influences on the degree of certainty students felt in their career decision-making processes. The study was conducted in a high school located in the Southeastern United States wherein 242 girls and 238 boys in grades 9 through 12 participated. The theoretical framework of this study consisted of (a) a theory of vocational personalities and work environments, (b) a theory of vocational interest and vocational choice, (c), a theory of self-efficacy (d) and a theory of cognitive information processing. Two commercial instruments were used to investigate the research questions. The independent factors used to predict the dependent variable of Career Decision-Making Certainty were (a) Decision-Making Confusion, (b) Commitment Anxiety, (c) External Conflict, and (d) Career Indecision. Statistical analyses indicated Decision-Making Confusion and Career Indecision had negative influences on Career Decision-Making Certainty whereas External Conflict had a positive influence; Commitment Anxiety was not a significant predictor. An investigation of predictors by gender, grade level, and ethnicity indicated girls had higher levels of Decision-Making Confusion and Commitment Anxiety than boys. An analysis of students Total Decision-Making ix

10 Negative Career Thoughts indicated girls had higher levels of Career Decision-Making Negative Career Thoughts than boys. Content theme analysis revealed students perceptions of positive and negative influences on their levels of certainty in their career decision-making processes. Four themes of positive influences emerged: (a) support from parents and friends (b) interest, (c) self-confidence, and (d) job experience. Four themes of negative influences emerged: (a) career indecision, (b) do not know how to get there, (c) lack of self-confidence, and (d) lack of knowledge about careers. In general, Decision-Making Confusion and Career Indecision exhibited negative influences on Career Decision-Making Certainty whereas External Conflict exhibited positive influence; Commitment Anxiety was not a significant influence. Post hoc comparisons revealed students did not vary by grade level or ethnicity on the dependent or independent variables but some variances were found by gender. x

11 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Chapter one introduces the importance of investigating intrinsic and extrinsic influences on high school students career decision-making processes. Legislative changes that now require high school students to select a major area of interest as a graduation requirement are explained. Attitude, anxiety, aptitude, ability, interest, value, self-efficacy, personality, and gender and ethnicity discrimination are also discussed as influencing constructs within the decision-making process. Chapter one also introduces influences and outcomes associated with the changing employee population of women and female teen workers; the number of female workers in the United States is increasing. The theoretical framework of the research project is introduced. Also introduced is a change of employment requirements as the social system shifts toward a more global economy with advanced technology. Research questions, hypotheses, assumptions, and limitations are presented. Making a career decision is fundamental to individuals because they spend a major part of their lives in their chosen occupations, which continuously modifies their personal identities (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pastorelli, 2001; Crozier & Ranyard, 1997). Making a career decision establishes an area of potential employment influences that serve as determinants on daily feelings of self-fulfillment, anxiety, 1

12 monotony, and challenge (Bandura et al.). Individuals today face more complex decisions than previous generations because of economic, social, and technological changes (Crozier & Ranyard). Today s socially-based employment contains human interactions that structure psychosocial welfare in which the ramifications of occupational experiences radiate into personal and social experiences, including the family environment, and can induce either positive or negative personal influences (Bandura, 1997). Today s cognitive and social requirements for employment are considerably higher than in previous years because of an increase in social system complexities, an increase in technology advancements, and an increase in international and global trading (Bandura). Consequently, attaining higher cognitive skills and knowledge to fulfill jobs that are more demanding is essential. According to Bandura, Education has now become vital for a productive life (p. 212). Influence of State Laws on Career Choices Individual choices for academic focus and career attainment now begin early in life. Recently, much of the accountability of academic choice was placed in students control through laws that require incoming ninth-grade students to select an academic major area of interest. In 2006, the Florida House of Representatives added and amended educational sections to the Florida Statutes through House Bill 7087 (Florida Department of Education [FDOE], 2006b). Section of the House Bill asserts Legislature s intent is to provide for school curricular redesign so students graduating from high schools possess the necessary skills to succeed in the workplace. This curricular redesign postulates that students perception of schoolwork will be more relevant to them and will mix their academic and 2

13 career-related courses when the students choose courses related to their goals and interests (Lewis, 2006). According to the House Bill, the purpose of career planning is to engage students in developing a meaningful course of study for their goal achievement. The House Bill mandates that educators are to help prepare students for career success by offering them one course in education and career planning beginning in the sixth grade. While taking this education and career-planning course, students are required to complete a personalized academic and career plan signed by the student, student s parent, and guidance counselor (FDOE, 2006b, lines ). The school year was the first school year when all students entering their first year of high school will be required to complete four major areas of interest credits. The Florida Statute now requires students to complete these credits for graduation. The House Bill allows students to change their major area of interest annually (FDOE, 2006b). House Bill 7087 amends Section of the Florida Statute and now holds school board superintendents accountable for students career education; the new law requires educators to help students experience a variety of career programs. In addition to increasing academic rigor and providing more secondary school academic and career experiences, the newly created Section of the Florida Statute seeks to align students career experiences with the job demands of industrial and economic growth by requiring educators to give students instructions in careers of high growth, high demand, and high pay... [and] decisionmaking skills (FDOE, lines ). According to former Governor Jeb Bush, The new Florida high school diploma mirrors the college model: 16 credits in core academic areas, 4 credits in a major area of interest, 3

14 and 4 elective credits. ( The Education Governor, 2007). The FDOE (2006a) has provided students with a selection of more than 440 major area of interest choices. Importance of Identifying Influencing Variables According to Zunker (2002), knowledge of influencing variables on students career decision-making processes is necessary for curriculum designers who align curricula with the skills students need to be occupationally successful. Identification of influencing variables is also necessary to help school counselors design services to facilitate students with their career decision-making processes within today s environment, which is influenced by social, economic, and cultural changes (Cook, Heppner, & O Brien, 2005; Tang, Pan, & Newmeyer, 2008). Additionally, knowledge of influencing variables by gender is necessary because societal norms and practices related to career gender roles are changing at a slower pace than the change in the number of women within the workforce (Bandura, 1995) Many students are unable to begin the decision-making process because of disabling emotions or a lack of understanding of the decision-making process (Sampson, Peterson, Lenz, Reardon, & Saunders, 1996). Students who are unable to begin or commit to a career choice may experience anxiety with making a decision or may experience anxiety with the decision-making process. Sampson et al. (1996) contend that many students exhibit a reluctance to make career decisions because of social or family influences; reluctance to make career decisions could be partly offset by increasing students occupational knowledge and self-knowledge. Being certain about making a career choice is important for individuals personal lives, as vocational psychology research has shown that people employed in an 4

15 occupation of choice tend to live healthier and more productive lives (Richardson, Constantine, & Washburn, 2005). Vocational psychology indicates there is a connection between individuals lives and careers (Walsh & Savickas, 2005). Vocational psychology also indicates there is a need for morally and ethically based career decision-making assistance to marginalized and disadvantaged individuals to help increase their mental and physical health (Walsh & Savickas). According to Richardson et al., equal opportunity within the career decision-making process is necessary for marginalized or disadvantaged individuals if these individuals are to obtain equal access to occupations. Biases within the educational community exist, but Jensen (1983) claims objective measurement of children s abilities helps reduce some biases. In contrast, ignoring marginalized or disadvantaged individuals supports the "status quo" (Richardson et al., 2005, p. 60). Middle class White males who have the most high-level jobs within the United States have traditionally marked the status quo (Richardson et al.). However, this worker population is changing; consequently, the status quo is subject to change (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008b; Bandura, 1995). Workforce Population Changes The population of the women s workforce in the United States is becoming increasingly diverse (U. S. Census Bureau, 2008b). From 1980 to 2008, the percentage of men working in the civilian labor force decreased 2.2% whereas the percentage of women working in the civilian labor force increased 8.9% (U.S. Census Bureau). The U.S. Census Bureau projects that from 1980 to 2016, the percentage of White, Black, and Hispanic workers will increase 1.4%, 3.9%, and 4.6% respectively for both men and women. Within this time, the U.S. Census Bureau projects substantial increases in the 5

16 White women (7.2%), Black women (10%), and Hispanic women (10.4%) workforce. The changing demographics of workers within the United States, combined with a slow change in societal norms and practices (Bandura, 1995), indicates a need to investigate influences on women s career decision-making processes. According to Sakamoto, Anastas, McPhail, and Colarossi (2008), stereotyping should be evaluated for its effects on the process of hiring and its influence on women s career decision-making processes as stereotyping continues to disadvantage women. The U.S. Census Bureau (2008a) projects a decline in the percentage of teen workers within the civilian workforce during the next decade. In the age group of 16 to 19 year-olds, the U.S. Census Bureau projects a decrease of 23.7% of male workers and a decrease of 14.6% of female workers for all ethnicities. Within the other age groups listed by the U.S. Census Bureau (e.g., 20 to 24 years to 64 years, and 65 years and over), almost all groups are projected to increase in number. This projection suggests that 16 to 19 year-olds, who are mostly high school aged, may stay in school longer and pursue an extended education to increase their preparation for work. The need to enhance students decision-making skills and certainty in making career decisions is further emphasized by Leong and Serafica (2001) who state that individuals within the ethnic minority groups will be seeking more jobs, and they will be seeking jobs within a less secure and more competitive global market. Occupational selection within a competitive global market is not confined to any specific group. Many intrinsic factors (e.g., personality, personal beliefs, self-concept, self-efficacy, interest, knowledge of occupation) influence individuals career decision-making processes as do many extrinsic factors (e.g., social and economic influences, study or work environments; 6

17 Blustein & Flum, 1999; Chung, 2002; Tang et al., 2008). Family and important others also influence individuals choices of careers; negative influences by family and important others may cause students conflict in their decision-making processes (Sampson et al., 1996). Students often make field of study and career choices based on the congruence between their perception of gender related jobs and job related skills (Holland, 1997; Tang et al., 2008). By the age of 13 or 14 years old, children begin to develop conceptions of gender type and prestige level occupations and mentally eliminate occupations not aligned with their self-concept of cognitive competencies as related to specific occupations (Tang et al.). Intrinsic and extrinsic influences by peers, parents, culture, social class, and employment experiences also influence individuals selfconcepts and personalities (Brown & McPartland, 2005; Holland; Wolfe & Betz, 2004). Statement of the Problem Beginning in the latter part of the 20th century, vast societal changes have contributed to advancements in technology and the globalization of jobs (Fassinger, 2005). These occupational changes now influence students career choices as many jobs transition from industrialized type work toward information and service type work (Fassinger). Today s declined economy may be providing a reduced number of job opportunities for students and may be affecting their abilities to confidently make career decisions. Consequently, many students have difficulties making career decisions and being certain about their decisions because of impeding intrinsic and extrinsic influences (Phillips & Jome, 2005). This study seeks to investigate intrinsic and extrinsic influences on students perceived levels of certainty in their career decision-making processes. 7

18 A Gap of Information There is a lack of research available to help educators and guidance counselors know the degree of influence that intrinsic and extrinsic variables have on students certainty in their career decisions. Career Decision-Making Certainty is a measure of the degree of certainty that the student feels in having made a decision about a major and a career (Osipow, 1987, p. 1). Fassinger (2005) claims there is a need for information relating to self-efficacy and personality in career theory. An understanding of factors that influence girls and women needs to be explored as this gap of information, according to Cook et al. (2005), within their complex lives leaves counselors unable to adequately help female students with their career decision-making processes. Fassinger (2005) claims there is a need for information on students interests and outcome expectations as mediated by their self-efficacy beliefs. Further investigation is needed on the influences of Decision-Making Confusion, Commitment Anxiety, and External Conflict on students career decision-making processes (Sampson et al., 1996). There exists a need for more information on the significance of influences on Career Decision-Making Certainty as derived by Sampson et al. Also needed is more information on how Career Indecision relates to Career Decision-Making Certainty in high school students (Osipow, Carney, Winer, Yanico, & Koschier, 1987). Rationale for Selection of Theories The rationale for the selection of theories for the theoretical framework of this study was based on the constructs of each theory, how the constructs interrelate, and the constructs abilities to provide insight on influences affecting students levels of certainty 8

19 in their career decision-making processes. The theoretical framework is comprised of four theories in which the constructs of each theory are interrelated. The first theory is a theory of vocational personalities and work environments (Holland, 1997). This theory seeks to explain vocational behavior and offer educational leaders practical ideas on how to help individuals make career choices (Holland). The second theory is a theory of vocational interest and vocational choice (Strong, 1943). Strong based this theory on individuals desires to attend more to items of greater interest than to items of lesser interest. The third theory is a theory of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy is an exercise of human agency to monitor self-concept, self-knowledge, and cognitive processes to control individual well-being and accomplishments (Bandura). According to Bandura, individuals will persist more toward their goals and desires when they perceive their self-efficacy as high. The fourth theory, which focuses on students abilities to process information within the career decision-making process, is a theory of cognitive information processing (CIP; Sampson et al., 1996). This theory builds on selfknowledge and occupational knowledge domains, includes a problem solving and information processing domain, and culminates with a domain of metacognition, which is the executive processing domain (Sampson et al.). The constructs of these four theories provided the rationale for the study of influences on the dependent variable of Career Decision-Making Certainty. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to investigate the influences of intrinsic and extrinsic factors, individually, collectively, by gender, by grade level, and by ethnicity, 9

20 on Career Decision-Making Certainty in high school students. This study was guided by (a) a theory of vocational personalities and work environments (Holland, 1997), (b) a theory of vocational interest and vocational choice as purported by E. K. Strong (Harmon, Hansen, Borgen, & Hammer, 1994; Strong; 1943), (c) a theory of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997, 1995), and (d) a theory of cognitive information processing (Sampson et al., 1996). Findings of this study could help educators be more aware of differences in students levels of certainty in their career decision-making processes according to gender, grade level, and ethnicity. Findings of this study may help educators be more aware of the intrinsic and extrinsic influences on students levels of certainty in their career choices according to gender, grade level, and ethnicity. Additionally, findings of this study may aid curriculum developers to design curricula sensitive to students career decision-making processes. Research Questions and Hypotheses Based on the literature review and the theoretical framework, the following four research questions are proposed to be examined in this study: Research Question One: Considered either singularly or in combination, do the independent factors of (a) Decision-Making Confusion, (b) Commitment Anxiety, (c) External Conflict, and (d) Career Indecision predict students Career Decision-Making Certainty, as measured by the summation of the first two certainty items of the Career Decision Scale instrument? 10

21 Research Question Two: Do significant differences exist among the influencing factors of (a) Decision-Making Confusion, (b) Commitment Anxiety, (c) External Conflict, and (d) Career Indecision as a function of gender, grade level, or ethnicity? Research Question Three: Do significant differences exist among students Career Decision-Making Certainty, as measured by the summed score of the CDS items 1 and 2 as a function of gender, grade level, or ethnicity? Research Question Four: Do significant differences exist among students Total Career Decision-Making Negative Thoughts as measured by the summed scores of selected items of the Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI) and the Career Decision Scale (CDS) as a function of gender, grade level, or ethnicity? Based on the research questions proposed to be examined in this study, the following null hypotheses are proposed: Null Hypothesis One: Considered either singularly or in combination, the independent factors of (a) Decision-Making Confusion, (b) Commitment Anxiety, (c) External Conflict, and (d) Career Indecision do not predict students Career Decision- Making Certainty, as measured by the summation of the first two certainty items of the Career Decision Scale instrument. Null Hypothesis Two: There are no significant differences among the mean scores of the influencing factors of (a) Decision-Making Confusion, (b) Commitment Anxiety, (c) External Conflict, and (d) Career Indecision by gender, grade level, or ethnicity. Null Hypothesis Three: There are no significant differences among the mean scores of students Career Decision-Making Certainty, as measured by the summed score of the CDS items 1 and 2 by gender, grade level, or ethnicity. 11

22 Null Hypothesis Four: There are no significant differences among the mean scores of students Total Career Decision-Making Negative Thoughts as measured by the summed scores of selected CTI and CDS items, by gender, grade level, or ethnicity. Assumptions Five assumptions were made concerning this study. First, the mix of students in this study was representative of students in rural schools in the Southeastern United States. Characteristic assumptions included students personalities, interests, socioeconomic backgrounds, aspirations, values, attitudes, and motivation. Second, new legislative laws requiring incoming high school students to select a major area of interest, according to Florida s House Bill 7087 (FDOE, 2006b), would advance students career decision-making processes to an earlier time within their secondary school years. Third, the findings of this study should have positive implications for curriculum designers as these educators prepare courses to help students make career decisions. Fourth, the findings of this study should identify factors that affect students levels of certainty in their career decisions. Fifth, the findings of this study should help guidance counselors and educators empirically determine if differences exist in students levels of certainty in their career decisions according to gender, grade level, and ethnicity. If differences are found, educators may be better equipped to help these students with their career decision-making processes as a result of this study. Limitations Selection of participants for this study was limited to one public high school within a rural community in the Southeastern United States. Educational laws entitle 12

23 these students to change their major area of interest annually and without penalty; change is a natural process with students: as long as there is life, there is change (Strong, 1955, p. 13). Based on this entitlement, generalization to other students should be made with caution if the general student population is not allowed to make annual major area of interest changes. Educators and researchers should consider generalizing only to other student populations with similar demographics and socioeconomic statuses as described herein. In addition, educators and researchers should consider that the school of this study had many students attending who were from military families, which created a moderate turnover rate of military students. 13

24 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Chapter two provides an in-depth review and diagrammatic illustrations of the theoretical framework of this study. The constructs of this theoretical framework provide a structure for investigating and determining influences on high school students levels of certainty in their career choices. Negative career thoughts exhibited by students is a display of their dysfunctional thinking and their dysfunctional thinking is discussed as an impairment of career problem solving and career decision-making. A total score and four construct subscales of dysfunctional thinking, as a measure of cognitive impairment on information processing toward career decision-making, are discussed. The four construct subscales of dysfunctional thinking reviewed comprise the independent factors of Decision-Making Confusion, Commitment Anxiety, External Conflict, and Career Indecision. Constructs of these factors are also reviewed as they relate to the individual theories and their interrelations among theories. Chapter two also provides a review of intrinsic and extrinsic influences on students levels of certainty in their career choices. Intrinsic influences reviewed include attitude, anxiety, aptitude, ability, skills, depression, interests, moral values, occupational knowledge, personality, self-efficacy, and self-knowledge. Extrinsic influences reviewed include biases and academic placement of students by ethnicity, biases and stereotyping by gender, employment opportunities, socio-structural biases, socio-economic status, and 14

25 aspirations of important others. Environmental influences on students levels of certainty in their career choices, technological advancements, and testing within public schools are also discussed. Terminology specific to the context of this study is defined hereafter as the terminology is presented. The chapter closes with a discussion of influences and these influences interconnections as they relate to Career Decision-Making Certainty in high school students. Theoretical Framework The first theory within the theoretical framework is a theory of fit between individuals vocational personalities and work environments (Holland, 1997). Within this theory, people are characterized by their resemblances to personality types, as exhibited in working environments. The six personality types are Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional (Holland). Individual behaviors are contingent upon intrinsic and extrinsic constructs within the theory. Some constructs are strongly related whereas other constructs are moderately related (Figure 1). 15

26 Figure 1. Conceptual model of relationships of constructs within the theory of vocational personalities and work environments (Holland, 1997).

27 The second theory within the theoretical framework is a theory of vocational interest and vocational choice where interest is the expression of personal satisfaction and reflects individual happiness; interest is one of several aspects of individual behavior (Strong, 1943). Satisfaction focuses attention on individual interests, which is an indicator of what will bring happiness to an individual (Strong). According to Strong, individuals satisfy their wants and desires by successfully accomplishing goals. These goals are determined through drives, aspirations, job satisfaction, success, and ambitions (Strong). Strong states, an interest is a response of liking; an aversion is a response of disliking (p. 6). Strong claims individual interest is present when the individual is aware of his or her disposition toward an object; this disposition includes feelings, wants or desires, and attitudes, all of which involve either acceptance or rejection of the object or activity. The theoretical constructs of this theory include the intrinsic variables of attitude, self-knowledge, self-efficacy, success, and personality (Strong, 1943). The extrinsic variables include socio-structural influences, employment stereotyping, and employment experiences (Strong). Individual aspirations help determine individual goals and provide the basis of motivation for individuals to aspire to reach their goals (Strong). The conceptual framework of this theory purports strong and moderate relationships among constructs that help mediate individuals Career Decision-Making Certainty (Figure 2). 17

28 Figure 2. Conceptual model of relationships of constructs within the theory of vocational interest and vocational choice (Strong, 1943).

29 The third theory within the theoretical framework is a theory of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997; Figure 3). According to Bandura, self-efficacy is an exercise of human agency where individuals manage their futures based on their perceptions of their abilities to succeed. Bandura asserts that individuals self-efficacy is increased by successful completion of tasks, observation of others succeeding in similar situations, and positive influences from others. Individuals self-efficacy is an interaction of self-knowledge, coping capabilities, cognitive processes, successes, interests, and extrinsic influences such as social persuasion and vicarious learning experiences. Today s societal changes in social norms, information exchange, and technological transformations are rapid and challenge people s sense of efficacy to manage their destinations (Bandura, 1997). Individuals perceive their self-efficacy and this perception plays a pivotal role in their abilities to make decisions and therefore becomes a determinant of action, which mediates human adaption and change within the process of making career decisions (Bandura). According to Bandura, self-efficacy is increased by positive intrinsic and extrinsic influences (e.g., vicarious learning experiences, mentoring, modeling, success). 19

30 B1 Self-concept B2 Selfknowledge B5 Modeling B6 Mentoring B3 Selfevaluation B4 Cognitive Processing B7 Vicarious Learning Experiences B8 Anxiety B12 Motivation And Drive B9 Stress B11 Coping Capabilities B18 Socio-structural Influences B10 Depression B17 Social Persuasion B19 Parental Influences Key Strong Relationship Moderate Relationship B14 Goals B13 Success B16 Selfsatisfaction Intrinsic Influence B15 Interests B20 Outcome Expectations Extrinsic Influence Career Decision-Making Certainty Figure 3. Conceptual model of relationships of constructs within the theory of self- efficacy (Bandura, 1997).

31 The fourth theory within the theoretical framework is the theory of cognitive information processing (CIP; Sampson et al., 1996). Sampson et al. state this theory begins with self-knowledge and occupational knowledge and advances to an informationprocessing domain called the CASVE model (Communication, Analysis, Synthesis, Value, and Execution). After the information-processing and decision-making domain, students enter the executive processing domain of metacognition (Sampson et al.). According to Sampson et al., if students reflect on their decisions and feel they need more self-knowledge, occupational knowledge, or help in making their career decisions, they can reenter the decision-making process at any point. Consequently, Sampson et al. purport that the CIP theory is cyclical and provides for reevaluation and reflection of individual thinking. The CIP model is comprised of intrinsic and extrinsic influences that are interrelated and influence students levels of certainty in their career decisions (Sampson et al.; Figure 4). Because the constructs of these theories are interrelated, their relationships provide the basis for examining and selecting the constructs that make up each independent factor of this study. The independent factors are Decision-Making Confusion, Commitment Anxiety, External Conflict, and Career Indecision (Figures 5, 6, 7, & 8, respectively). The constructs of these independent factors are the constructs that have been shown to influence the dependent variable, which is Career Decision-Making Certainty (Bandura, 1997; Holland, 1997: Sampson et al., 1996; Strong, 1943; Figure 9). 21

32 C1 Mentoring C2 Modeling C6 Employment Experiences C9 Job Title C11 Goals C12 Values C3 Education C5 Occupational Knowledge C10 Self- Knowledge C13 Interests C8 Information Change C7 Information Availability C17 Evaluation C18 Crystallization C4 Aptitude C26 Prioritizing C15 Mental Problem Solving C16 Analysis C23 Decision- Making Skills C19 Synthesis C25 Valuing C14 Skills C20 Significant Others Influence C21 Communication C24 Execution C28 Commitment C22 Avoidance Behavior C27 Training and Execution Key Strong Relationship Moderate Relationship Information Processing Domain C30 Metacognition C32 Monitoring And Control Intrinsic Influence Extrinsic Influence C29 Self-Talk C32 Self- Awareness Career Decision-Making Certainty Figure 4. Conceptual model of relationships of constructs within the theory of cognitive information processing (Sampson et al., 1996).

33 Figure 5. Conceptual model of relationships of theoretical framework constructs and how they relate to the independent variable of Decision-Making Confusion. Figure 6. Conceptual model of relationships of theoretical framework constructs and how they relate to the independent variable of Commitment Anxiety.

34 C27 S10 S11 H1 H2 H3 H4 B17 B18 B19 External Conflict C1 C2 C20 Key Strong Relationship B5 B6 B7 Moderate Relationship Figure 7. Conceptual model of relationships of theoretical framework constructs and how they relate to the independent variable of External Conflict. S2 S3 H5 H8 S12 B12 B14 B15 B20 C5 C6 C13 H4 Career Indecision H6 H7 H11 S4 S5 S6 H10 Key Strong Relationship C22 B1 B2 B3 B4 C18 C25 C26 Moderate Relationship Figure 8. Conceptual model of relationships of theoretical framework constructs and how they relate to the independent variable of Career Indecision.

35 Figure 9. Conceptual model of influences of independent variables on the dependent variable of Career Decision-Making Certainty.

36 Dysfunctional Thinking Career decision-making dysfunctional thinking can impair students abilities to effectively resolve career decision-making problems and confidently make career decisions (Sampson et al., 1996). According to Sampson et al., dysfunctional thinking hinders students career decision-making processes and can negatively influence the quality of their career decisions. Sampson et al. claim the influences of dysfunctional career thinking stems from misconceptions, myths, self-defeating statements, biases, and irrational expectations and can lead to anxiety and depression. The level of dysfunctional thinking in career problem solving and career decision-making is an indicator of career problem solving and career decision-making difficulty (Sampson et al.). Sampson et al. assert that extremely high levels of dysfunctional thinking can lead to career decisionmaking debilitation. The term problem represents a gap between an existing and a desired state of affairs and may include issues such as indecision, conflict with significant others, disruptive emotions, unemployment, underemployment, and job dissatisfaction (Sampson et al., 1996, p. 5). Sampson et al. claim problem solving involves a series of thought processes where information about a specific career problem helps determine a course of action whereby the gap of information between the existing and desired state of affairs is resolved. Dysfunctional thinking is evident by an individual s dissatisfaction with a career choice, uncertainty in making a career decision, and limited career knowledge (Sampson et al., 1996). According to Sampson et al., students learn dysfunctional career thoughts in schools, in families, in peer groups, and in work environments through exposure to 26

37 incorrect career thoughts. Evident from high levels of dysfunctional thinking, Sampson et al. claim students may not understand how their abilities, personalities, and interests connect to future occupations. Dysfunctional thinking cannot be directly measured but can be inferred from responses to statement items within career thoughts assessment instruments (Sampson et al., 1996). Career thoughts are outcomes of one s thinking about assumptions, attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, feelings, plans, and/or strategies related to career problem solving and decision making (p. 2). Career decision-making includes career problem solving, which is comprised of cognitive and affective processes needed to develop a plan for implementing the solution to a problem and taking the risks involved in following the plan through to completion (p. 5). Career problem solving is a complex set of thought processes... an analysis of the causes, the formulation and clarification of alternative courses of action, and the selecting of one of these alternatives (Peterson, Sampson, Lenz, & Reardon, 2002, p. 316). Career thoughts assessment inventories can yield a global indicator score of dysfunctional thinking that represents an ability to solve career problems and make career decisions (Sampson et al., 1996). Decision-Making Confusion Either individually or collectively, intrinsic and extrinsic influences affect students career decision-making processes (Holland, 1997). Decision-Making Confusion represents an inability to initiate or sustain the decision making process as a result of disabling emotions and/or a lack of understanding about the decision making process itself (Sampson et al., 1996, p. 28). Students who experience Decision-Making Confusion may be so overwhelmed by the extent of the career decision-making process 27

38 that they may not initiate the process and may experience negative emotions such as anxiety, depression, and discouragement (Sampson et al.). Students who experience Decision-Making Confusion may claim no occupation interests them, the decisionmaking process is too complex, or they cannot begin the process (Sampson et al.). Furthermore, Sampson et al. claim that some students who cannot begin the decisionmaking process cannot sort through all their career options or cannot understand why they are unable to make decisions. Commitment Anxiety Commitment Anxiety represents an inability to make a career commitment and may be accompanied by decision-making anxiety (Sampson et al., 1996; Zunker, 2002). Students who experience Commitment Anxiety may be unable to confidently choose a field of study or occupation without experiencing depression, may be unable to visualize a suitable occupation, may be unable to narrow down career options, and may be unable to pick a career (Sampson et al.). Anxiety may be offset by career efficacy. According to Bandura (1971), individuals with low self-efficacy believe the environment contains more risks and dangers, whereas individuals with high self-efficacy possess increased coping efficacy and consequently may engage in activities they feel are relatively safe. Dysfunctional career thoughts may cause individuals to become anxious about their career choices and may cause them to make rapid or uninformed career decisions. Moreover, students may choose to shift the career decision-making responsibility to important others (Sampson et al., 1996). Shifting the responsibility of making career decisions to important others represents escape-avoidance (DeLongis & Newth, 1998). 28

39 By making this shift, individuals may gain extra time to initiate their own career decision-making processes. Short-term escape-avoidance may increase students abilities to engage in active problem solving while focusing on the decision at hand (DeLongis & Newth, 1998). DeLongis and Newth warn how the continued use of escape-avoidance may amplify to a more stressful and psychological debilitating situation when individuals continue to avoid the stresses of career decision-making; the continued use of escape avoidance usually results in higher levels of dysfunctional thoughts. Additionally, DeLongis and Newth state that individuals internal locus of control, as opposed to external locus of control, positively influences their problem-focused coping. External Conflict Students experience external conflict when their career choices are influenced by important others aspirations (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007). External conflict reflects an inability to differentiate and stabilize personal perceptions of career choices from important others input (Betz, 1999; Sampson et al., 1996; Soenens & Vansteenkiste, 2005). The result of this conflict, according to Sampson et al., is a reluctance to take responsibility for making a career decision. External influences that induce external conflict are strong because of prior interactions and these influences help shape students self-concepts, even when the students are not in contact with their important others (Cook et al., 2005). Blau, Gustad, Jessor, Parnes, and Wilcox (1956) theorized that the interrelationships of psychological, economic, and sociological determinants [are influential on] occupational choice and development (p. 71). In addition, family 29

40 relations, social positioning, and developed social-role characteristics (p. 71) condition individuals characteristics, which influence occupational choice. These influencing career development determinants also include parental status and parental attitudes toward their children s attainment of education, hence influencing their children s career choices (Zunker, 2002). Career Indecision Career Indecision is a construct that inhibits progress within the career decisionmaking process and is an inability to make a decision about a vocation one wishes to pursue (Guay, Senecal, Gauthier, & Fernet, 2003, p. 165). Osipow, Carney, and Barak (1976) claim that students who experience Career Indecision may experience a lack of structure and confidence in their decision-making processes, an external barrier to their career choices, an inability to narrow their number of choices to only one, or a personal conflict of some kind that impedes their decision-making processes. An inability to narrow the number of career choices to only one is evident in responses to statements that indicate students perceive several appealing career opportunities but have difficulty deciding among them (Osipow et al., 1987). Osipow et al. explain that when individuals are interested in multiple careers and have the abilities to succeed in all of them, their perceived abilities can contribute to Career Indecision. Personal conflicts, such as limits to education because of financial constraints, can also negatively influence students abilities to make career decisions (Zunker, 2002). Wolfe and Betz (2004) purport that less developed bonds of paternal and peer attachment, fear of commitment, and low career decision-making efficacy contribute to Career Indecision and in some cases can lead to chronic indecisiveness. 30

41 One underlying theme in psychological career development theories is the assumption that individuals can moderately control their career decision-making processes (Blan et al., 1956). Being cognizant of intrinsic and extrinsic influences and making decisions on courses of life s actions indicate an individual s ability to implement human agency, which is an assessment and evaluation of mental representations of future potentialities (Bandura, 2001). Individual mental structure and confidence in the career decision-making process is evident through human agency and can help students avoid Career Indecision (Schwandt, 2001). Human agency, or human existence, is a conscious and methodological effort to cope with the established world (Schwandt, 2001). Mental representations of future potentialities indicate individualized evaluations of world complexities, hazards, and challenges (Bandura, 2001). In contrast, sociological theories claim institutional and impersonal market forces... constrain decision making and greatly impede satisfaction of career aspirations (Zunker, 2002, p. 72). According to Zunker (2002), external barriers to the career decision-making process include institutional practices where educators help prepare students for available jobs instead of satisfying careers. However, available careers and job satisfaction are sometimes limited for select groups of individuals (e.g., ethnic minorities, females) as these individuals strive to advance in the core sector of industry, which could increase their wages (Zunker). Zunker asserts that individuals in the periphery sector usually have lower levels of education, which can limit their access to the core sector. 31