General Health in Organizations: Relative Relevance of Emotional Intelligence, Trust, and Organizational Support

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1 General Health in Organizations: Relative Relevance of Emotional Intelligence, Trust, and Organizational Support Ajay K. Jain Management Development Institute Arvind K. Sinha Indian Institute of Technology This study examined the predictive ability of emotional intelligence (EI), trust, and organizational support in general health. The sample consisted of 250 middle-level executives from 2-wheeler manufacturing organizations. Results suggest that the dimension of EI termed positive attitude about life predicted both factors of general health positively: (a) sense of accomplishment and contribution and (b) botheration-free existence. Organizational support predicted sense of accomplishment and contribution, whereas vertical trust predicted botheration-free existence, accompanied by the assertiveness and positive self-concept dimension of EI. The implications of the results are discussed in terms of promoting the general health of employees through training on EI skills and through the creation of an atmosphere of trust and recognition within the organization. Keywords: general health; emotional intelligence; vertical trust; organizational support; positive psychology The psychological and management literature on individual health in organizations has not focused greatly on either the promotion of positive health or the prevention of negative health. Recent studies on employees health have still largely focused on traditional models of health, in which factors related to stress and strain have been more commonly emphasized (Elloy & Smith, 2003; Lu, 1999; Potter, Smith, Strobel, & Zautra, 2002). In Ajay K. Jain, Department of Organizational Behavior, Management Development Institute, Gurgaon, India; Arvind K. Sinha, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, India. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Ajay K. Jain, Management Development Institute, Gurgaon , India International Journal of Stress Management Copyright 2005 by the Educational Publishing Foundation 2005, Vol. 12, No. 3, /05/$12.00 DOI: /

2 258 Jain and Sinha contrast to a negatively oriented health model, the present study on the general health of employees was carried out according to the assumptions of positive psychology (Seligman, 1998a, 1998b, 1999; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). This approach has given a new direction to the entire field of organizational psychology by focusing on positive rather than negative organizational behaviors (Luthans, 2002; Wright, 2003). The purpose for studying general health in this context in the present work is to investigate the comparative importance of the within-individual variable (emotional intelligence; EI), the interindividual variable (interpersonal trust), and the extraindividual (organizational support) variables that might both promote positive general health and preclude negative general health of employees in organizations. BACKGROUND Emotional Intelligence Some researchers have found the concept of intelligence of little relevance in predicting the effectiveness and efficiency of the individual in the social environment, including school, family, industry, and the like. McClelland (1973), in his early article Testing for Competence Rather Than for Intelligence, looked beyond the traditional concept of intelligence at the competencies that are responsible for success in life. More formally, Daniel Goleman s (1995) concept of EI recognizes that the effectiveness of workers, work groups, and whole organizations is influenced by emotional and social competence. The EI framework has emphasized a new set of abilities and skills for the workforce that might help adaptation to the rapidly changing organizational culture and climate. Besides general and academic interest in EI (BarOn, 1997; Goleman, 1995; Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Salovey & Mayer, 1990), the concept has drawn the attention of management in its efforts to enhance workers and managers skills in terms of mood control, happiness, optimism, teamwork, cooperation, and the like. Some recent empirical studies have found EI an important tool related to positive outcomes such as prosocial behavior, parental warmth, and positive family and peer relations (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999; Rice, 1999; Salovey, Mayer, Caruso, & Lopes, 2001). In addition, studies have shown that lower EI is related to negative outcomes, including illegal drug and alcohol use, deviant behavior, and poor relations with friends (Brackette, Mayer, & Warner, in press). Recently, Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso (2000) classified EI models into two categories. First, the ability model, proposed by Mayer and Salovey

3 General Health 259 (1997), asserts that EI is the ability to perceive and express emotion; the assimilation of emotions in thought, understanding, and reasoning; and the regulation of emotion in oneself and others. Second, mixed models have two proponents, Goleman (1995) and BarOn (1997). Goleman (1995) defined EI on the basis of traits that include self-control, zeal, persistence, and the ability to motivate oneself. He included major areas of skills, namely, knowing one s emotions, managing emotions, motivating oneself, recognizing emotions in others, and handling relationships. BarOn (1997) maintained that EI is an array of noncognitive capabilities, competencies, and skills that influence one s ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures. He included five major areas: interpersonal skills, intrapersonal skills, adaptability skills, stress management skills, and general mood. In the present work, we followed a mixed model and measured EI by using the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i; BarOn, 1997). This allowed us to see the relevance of a mixed model of EI in both promoting positive general health and preventing negative general health. Similarly, Matthews and Zeidner (2000) proposed that EI abilities and skills are helpful in adaptation to stressful encounters. One of the core competencies of EI is its contribution to managing stress and strain through helping one understanding one s feelings and manage their behavioral expression. Thus, EI provides the ability to deal with stressful environments through cognitively controlled affective processes. On the basis of the above body of information, we hypothesized that EI would positively influence the general health of employees in organizations. Trust A second variable, trust, was taken as another predictor of general health. Scholars have seen trust as an essential ingredient in the healthy personality (Erikson, 1963; Shaver & Hazan, 1994), as a foundation of interpersonal relationships (Rempel, Holmes, & Zanna, 1985), as a foundation for cooperation (Barnard, 1938; Blau, 1964), and as the basis of social institutions and markets (Arrow, 1974; Williamson, 1974; Zucker, 1986). A widely used definition of trust, given by Rousseau, Sitkin, Burt, and Camerer (1998), regards trust as a psychological state comprising the intention to accept the vulnerability based upon positive expectations of the intentions or behavior of another (p. 395). Rosenberg (1956) and Rotter (1967, 1971) attempted to measure trust with questionnaires, both of which presumably measure the degree to which an individual expects that another person may be relied on. Gabarro and Athos (1976) identified a number of the bases of trust within business relationships, namely, beliefs regarding the other s integrity, mo-

4 260 Jain and Sinha tives, and intentions; behavioral consistency; openness; and discretion. Within organizations, managers play a central role in determining the overall level of trust and specific expectations within a given unit. Levels of trust or mistrust are reflected in a manager s actions and, in turn, may be reciprocated by subordinates. Trust in supervisors might be affectively satisfactory to employees. Conversely, when employees believe their leader cannot be trusted (e.g., because the employer is perceived not to have integrity), they may start thinking negatively about the workplace and suffer health-related problems in the long run. Trust in the supervisor is seen as pivotal for leadership effectiveness and work unit productivity (e.g., Kouzes & Posner, 1987). Studies show that subordinates citizenship behavior is positively related to supervisory trust behaviors (Deluga, 1994). Konovsky and Pugh (1994) found that an employee s trust in a supervisor mediated between procedural fairness in the supervisor s decision making and employee citizenship. In a recent meta-analytic review, Dirks and Ferrin (2002) found that trust in leadership was significantly related to attitudinal outcomes (job satisfaction, organizational commitment, intention to quit, goal commitment, belief in information) and certain behavioral and performance outcomes (job performance, citizenship behavior). These studies show that employees level of trust in their supervisors relates to their positive organizational behaviors. One might think that trust in supervisors should also help in promoting positive general health and preventing the negative effect of stressors. In the literature, trust has been treated as a mediator variable. In the present study, however, we assessed the direct effect of trust on employees health. We assumed that the capacity to trust in others is a sign of a healthy personality. Thus, we hypothesized that trust in their supervisor and/or employer would positively influence the general health of employees in organizations. Perceived Organizational Support (POS) POS served as a third predictor variable in this study. POS has been recognized as an important determinant of employees health and well-being in organizations. POS simply means recognition by the organization of an individual s socioemotional needs, efforts, commitment, and loyalty. Organizational support theory (Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986; Shore & Shore, 1995) has proposed that employees develop a global belief concerning the extent to which an organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being. Just like organizational commitment, POS represents an attitudinal response to the organization as a whole. In a recent meta-analysis, Rhoades and Eisenberger (2002) found that fairness,

5 General Health 261 supervisory support, organizational rewards, and favorable job conditions were associated with POS. In turn, POS was related to positive outcomes for individual employees (positive mood, satisfaction) and the organization (affective commitment, lessened withdrawal behavior). POS is expected to reduce aversive physical, psychological, and behavioral reactions (e.g., strain) to stressors through the availability of financial and emotional support when it is needed to face the challenges in the workplace (George, Reed, Ballard, Colin, & Fielding, 1993; Robblee, 1998). As House (1981) noted, support can be of four kinds, namely, instrumental, emotional, informational, and appraisal. House also noted that support serves as a moderator to reduce the negative effect of stressors. POS is directly associated with reduced strain, irrespective of the number or intensity of stressors that the individual encounters. Studies have shown that support has a positive impact on an individual s level of well-being and psychological health (Leather, Lawrence, Beale, & Cox, 1998). A study of Japanese bank employees by Iwata and Suzuki (1997) showed the potential moderating effect of social support on strain. Supervisory support and support from significant others were negatively related to strain. In the literature, support has been considered to be a moderator variable between stressors and strain; however, support may also have a direct impact on employees general health. Therefore, on the basis of the above findings, we hypothesized that a supporting organizational environment would positively influence the general health of its employees. To our knowledge, no empirical study has been carried out on the relation of EI, trust, and organizational support to the general health of employees especially in the changing Indian work scene following a period of liberalization and globalization. METHOD Participants and Procedure The sample consisted of 250 middle-level executives from four plants of two-wheeler (scooter and motorcycle) manufacturing organizations. The organizations, within the private sector, were located in five different cities of North India. The employees were male, were in the 25- to 45-year age group, and had spent at least 1 year in the same organization. Almost all of them were married and had a graduate degree or diploma in engineering. Because India is a culturally diverse and large country, we collected the data from North Indian organizations to control for cultural differences in work values and physical characteristics of the respondents.

6 262 Jain and Sinha We collected the data by administering questionnaires mainly during office hours, with the consent of the relevant representatives of the employer as well as the respondents. The questionnaires were in English, were adapted to suit the target group through slight modifications in the language or the response categories as needed, and were validated in the Indian cultural context. The participants were chosen randomly from each organization and belonged to different departments of the organization. Most of the participants showed their willingness to participate in the study after a short meeting. The data for the study reported in this article were collected as part of larger study. Measures Questionnaire measures were used to obtain data on the four variables included in the study: EI, trust, organizational support, and general health. EI, trust, and organizational support were conceptualized as independent variables, and general health was considered to be the dependent variable. Self-report measures were used to obtain the data. EI was measured through a questionnaire adapted from the EQ-i (BarOn, 1997), which consisted of 133 items. Trust was measured through a questionnaire consisting of 7 items that was adapted from the work of Gabarro and Athos (1976). Organizational support was measured through the POS questionnaire developed by Eisenberger et al. (1986) and consisted of 36 items. General health (lack of strain) was measured through the 12-item variant of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12; Goldberg, 1972). The questionnaires appear in Table 1 with their usable factors and loadings. A summary for ready reference is presented in Table 2, which shows (a) the major constructs used in the study, (b) their factor-analytically derived dimensions, (c) the number of items constituting the factors, and (d) Cronbach s alpha coefficients indicating the internal consistency for the respective factors. The measures used in this study were borrowed from their original sources and adapted for the Indian work setting via exploratory factor analysis technique. All survey items were rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (true to almost no extent) to5(true to a very great extent). Results of factor analyses were based on principal factoring and oblique rotations option of the SPSS-X statistical analysis package program. The sections that follow provide a brief description of factors extracted by factor analysis according to the criterion of factor loadings greater than or equal to.30 and Cronbach s alpha reliability coefficient greater than or equal to.70.

7 General Health 263 Table 1. Summary of Factor Analysis Results Factor and item no. Item Loading Factors of Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire Factor 1: Assertiveness and Positive Self-Concept 1 I have a feeling that something is wrong with my.41 mind. 2 I m unable to express my ideas to others I lack self-confidence I think I ve lost my mind..52 Factor 2: Impulse Control 5 It is a problem controlling my anger I have strong impulses that are hard to control I have got a bad temper I tend to explode with anger easily..59 Factor 3: Positive Attitude About Life 9 I do not have good idea of what I want to do in.33 my life. 10 It is difficult for me to stand up for my rights It is hard for me to keep things I do not keep in touch with others Before beginning something new, I usually feel.48 that I will fail. Factor 4: Reality Awareness 14 I try to continue and develop those things that I.33 enjoy. 15 Even when upset, I m aware of what s happening.44 to me. 16 In handling situations that arise, I try to think of as.37 many approaches as I can. 17 I can easily pull out of daydreams and tune into.58 the reality of the immediate situation. Factor 5: Controlled Problem Solving 18 My impulsiveness creates problems When trying to solve a problem, I look at each.38 possibility and then decide on the best way. 20 I am impatient I know how to keep calm in difficult situations..45 Factor of Trust Questionnaire Vertical Trust 1 I am not sure I fully trust my employer My employer is open and up-front with me I believe my employer has a high integrity In general, I believe my employer s motives and.76 intentions are good. 5 My employer is not always honest and truthful I do not think my employer treats me fairly I can expect my employer to treat me in a consistent and predictable manner..43 (table continues)

8 264 Jain and Sinha Table 1. (Continued) Factor and item no. Item Loading Factors of Organizational Support Questionnaire Factor 1: Organizational Supportiveness 1 The organization values my contribution to its.40 well-being. 2 The organization would understand a long absence.34 due to my illness. 3 Help is available from the organization when I.70 have a problem. 4 The organization really cares about my well-being The organization is willing to extend itself in order.63 to help me perform my job to the best of my ability. 6 The organization is willing to help me when I need.47 a special favor. 7 The organization cares my general satisfaction at.35 work. Factor 2: Caring Attitude of Organization 8 The organization strongly considers my goals and.44 values. 9 If decided to quit, the organization would try to.48 persuade me to stay. 10 The organization cares about my opinion The organization takes pride in my.56 accomplishments at work. 12 If the organization earned a greater profit, it would.35 consider increasing my salary. 13 The organization wishes to give me the best.49 possible job for which I am qualified. 14 The organization tries to make my job as.51 interesting as possible. 15 My supervisor is proud that I am a part of this.64 organization. Factor 3: Appreciation of Effort 16 The organization fails to appreciate any extra effort.40 from me. 17 The organization disregards my best interests when.43 it makes decisions that affect me. 18 The organization shows very little concern for me The organization cares more about making a profit.57 then about me. 20 The organization is unconcerned about paying me what I deserve..49

9 General Health 265 Table 1. (Continued) Factor and item no. Item Loading Factors of General Health Questionnaire Factor 1: Sense of Accomplishment and Contribution 1 Have you recently been able to concentrate on.58 whatever you are doing? 2 Have you recently felt that you are playing a useful.81 part in things? 3 Have you recently felt capable of making decisions.86 about things? 4 Have you recently been able to enjoy normal day.48 to day activities? 5 Have you recently been able to face up to your.61 problems? 6 Have you recently been feeling reasonably happy.68 all things considered? Factor 2: Botheration-Free Existence 7 Have you recently lost much sleep over worry?.75 8 Have you recently felt constantly under strain?.79 9 Have you recently felt you couldn t overcome your.60 difficulties? 10 Have you recently been feeling unhappy and depressed? Have you recently been losing confidence in you? Have you recently been thinking yourself as a worthless person?.51 EI Inventory Using BarOn s (1997) EQ-i, the present study yielded five significant factors on factor analysis. These were (a) Assertiveness and Positive Self- Concept (.74), (b) Impulse Control (.72), (c) Positive Attitude Table 2. Summary of Factors and Reliability of Scales Variable Factor No. items Cronbach s Emotional intelligence 1. Assertiveness/Positive Self-Concept Impulse Control Positive Attitude About Life Reality Awareness Controlled Problem Solving 4.71 Trust 1. Vertical Trust 7.81 Organizational support 1. Organizational Supportiveness Caring Attitude of Organization Appreciation of Effort 5.77 General health 1. Sense of Accomplishment and Contribution Botheration-Free Existence 6.83

10 266 Jain and Sinha About Life (.77), (d) Reality Awareness (.71), and (e) Controlled Problem Solving (.71). The nature of the factor structure of the five obtained factors indicates that the first factor s structure perhaps relates to the EI skill arising out of proper expression of one s ideas and feeling to others with a positive image of oneself. The factor structure of the second factor indicates EI skills through control and regulation of one s negative emotions. The factor structure of the third factor indicates optimistic attitudes about life in general. The factor structure of the fourth factor indicates awareness of one s environment. The factor structure of the fifth factor indicates the implication of EI skills in solving problems by controlling one s negative mood and feelings. Overall, the five factors have some similarity to those found by Goleman (1995), Salovey and Mayer (1990), and BarOn (1997). The majority of the items, however, did not appear to be relevant for measuring EI in our sample of Indian managers, as evident by the fact that out of 133 items only 21 were found to be factor-analytically meaningful. Trust Questionnaire Gabarro and Athos (1976) measured trust in one s supervisor through a seven-item scale that yielded only one usable factor, called Vertical Trust (.81). The factor structure indicates employees positive faith and belief in an employer s intentions and good will. All seven items were retained. Organizational Support Organizational support was measured through a questionnaire based on the writings of Eisenberger et al. (1986). This questionnaire yielded three usable factors: (a) Organizational Supportiveness (.86), (b) Caring Attitude of Organization (.84), and (c) Appreciation of Effort (.77). Out of 36 items, 20 were found to be factor-analytically meaningful. The factor structure of the first factor indicates support from the organization for an employee s illness, well-being, and satisfaction. The factor structure of second factor indicates the recognition of an employee s values, opinions, and ideas on the job. The factor structure of the third factor indicates recognition by the organization of an employee s effort. Criterion Variable: GHQ-12 General health was measured through the GHQ-12 (Goldberg, 1972). On factor analysis, the scale yielded two usable factors: Sense of Accomplish-

11 General Health 267 ment and Contribution (.84) and Botheration-Free Existence (.83). All 12 items were retained. Unlike the original GHQ-12, the present study reports two factors in the Indian work context. The first factor s structure relates to general health arising out of a sense of accomplishment and contribution, perhaps a state of existence marked by active attempts of respondents to impact the environment; in other words, the factor represents positive general health. By comparison, the factor structure of the second factor indicates a state of existence in which general health may be a function of a relatively laid-back attitude and much less attempt to act on the environment; in other words, this factor represents negative general health. RESULTS The conceptual scheme of the present study includes four major constructs, namely, EI, trust, organizational support, and general health. On factor analysis, EI yielded five factors, trust yielded one factor, and organizational support yielded three factors. To determine the strength of relation among the nine predictor variables and the two factors of general health, we made use of multiple regression analysis (MRA). We used the stepwise option in SPSS-X for this purpose to remove the less desirable predictor of general health from the regression equation. Results show the significant impact of the independent variables on general health in this sample. The general statistics pertaining to the variables appear in Table 3, and the MRA results appear in Table 4. Table 3. Means, Standard Deviations, Reliabilities, and Correlations Among the Variables (N 250) Variable M SD APSC IC ** PAL **.31** RA **.09.32** CPS **.45**.43**.33** VT **.21**.22**.25**.27** OS *.18**.14*.23**.24**.68** CAO **.13*.17**.25**.21**.52**.70** AOE **.14*.22**.06.21**.54**.58**.48** SAC **.15*.32**.19**.20**.30**.25**.34**.21** BFE **.22**.41**.17**.29**.27**.21**.23**.27**.46**.83 Note. Coefficient alphas are reported along the diagonal. Means and standard deviations are based on a 5-point scale. APSC Assertiveness and Positive Self-Concept; IC Impulse Control; PAL Positive Attitude About Life; RA Reality Awareness; CPS Controlled Problem Solving; VT Vertical Trust; OS Organizational Supportiveness; CAO Caring Attitude of Organization; AOE Appreciation of Effort; SAC Sense of Accomplishment and Contribution; BFE Botheration-Free Existence. * p.05. ** p.01.

12 268 Jain and Sinha Table 4. Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis With the Dimensions of Emotional Intelligence, Vertical Trust, and Organizational Support Predicting the Sense of Accomplishment and Contribution and Botheration-Free Existence Dimensions of General Health Predictor variable Criterion variable t Appreciation of Effort Sense of Accomplishment and Contribution Positive Attitude About Life Positive Attitude About Life Botheration-Free Existence p (exact) Adj. R 2 Overall F F(2, 247) 28.02, p F(3, 246) 22.48, p.0000 Vertical Trust Assertiveness and Positive Self-Concept Note. Adj. adjusted. A correlation matrix and descriptive statistics are included in Table 3. Inspection of the table indicates that five dimensions of EI, vertical trust, and three dimensions of organizational support were positively and significantly correlated with both of the dimensions of general health. From Table 4, it is clear that EI, vertical trust, and organizational support were significant positive predictors of general health in organizations. The results of MRA with the dimension of general health termed Sense of Accomplishment and Contribution and with Botheration-Free Existence as the criterion variables showed that the overall stepwise regression was significant, F(2, 247) 28.02, p.0000, and F(3, 246) 22.48, p.0000, respectively. In the case of Sense of Accomplishment and Contribution, out of the nine predictor variables, two variables were retained in the stepwise regression equation, which explained 18% of the variance in the total (adjusted R 2.18). Both the variables, Appreciation of Effort and Positive Attitude About Life, were found to be positive predictors of Sense of Accomplishment and Contribution as the criterion. In the case of Botheration-Free Existence, out of the nine predictor variables, three variables were retained in the stepwise regression equation, which explained 21% of variance in the total (adjusted R 2.21). All three variables, termed Positive Attitude About Life, Vertical Trust, and Assertiveness and Positive Self-Concept, were found to be positive predictors of Botheration-Free Existence as the criterion.

13 General Health 269 DISCUSSION The present work attempts to examine the differential strength of association of EI, trust, and organizational support with general health. The overall results indicate that all three predictors had a strong link with general health. More specifically, Appreciation of Effort and Positive Attitude About Life were found to be positive predictors of Sense of Accomplishment and Contribution. In an attempt to seek an explanation for these findings, one needs to understand this dimension of general health itself. Sense of Accomplishment and Contribution represents a state of affairs in which one feels capable, confident, and satisfied in one s surroundings. Such a person enjoys work and feels motivated to accomplish the goals of the organization. He or she is affectively inclined to work hard. Hence, this factor is best predicted by organizational support in terms of Appreciation of Effort and by EI as represented in the form of Positive Attitude About Life. Recognition of one s efforts and an optimistic attitude toward work and life are likely to make a person happy, satisfied, confident, and capable. Appreciation of Effort was found to be a slightly better predictor in comparison with Positive Attitude About Life. Overall, both of the predictor variables explained 18% of the variance in Sense of Accomplishment and Contribution. Further, Positive Attitude About Life, Vertical Trust, and Assertiveness and Positive Self-Concept were found to be positive predictors of Botheration-Free Existence (the second dimension of general health). This dimension represents a state of affairs in which one does not feel motivated to make an active attempt to adapt to the environment. It is represented by a laidback attitude. Such a person tries to avoid the negative feelings of depression, unhappiness, and dissatisfaction that arise in the workplace. Hence, Positive Attitude About Life, Assertiveness and Positive Self-Concept, and Vertical Trust best predict this factor of general health. The results make sense in that an optimistic attitude toward work and life and the skills needed to assertively put one s own ideas and feelings in front of others are likely to reduce feelings of unhappiness, dissatisfaction, depression, and the like. The attitude of vertical trust might generate faith in the employer, which would also help in keeping oneself free from negative affect resulting from unhappiness, dissatisfaction, and depression. Overall, all three predictor variables explained 21% of the variance in Botheration-Free Existence. The results of this study can thus be summarized in the following four points. First, EI, vertical trust, and organizational support were found to be positive predictors of both dimensions of general health. Second, the comparative importance of EI over the other two predictors of general health was observed. Third, it was also found that EI and organizational support promoted positive general health and that EI, along with trust, precluded nega-

14 270 Jain and Sinha tive general health. Last, a positive attitude about life emerged as the common predictor variable for both the dimensions of general health. In brief, one may understand the overall results in a useful framework by considering the predictors in two categories, namely, the promoters and the preventers. In the first category there were two predictors, Appreciation of Effort and Positive Attitude About Life, that acted as promoters for positive general health (sense of accomplishment and contribution); the second category factors, Positive Attitude About Life, Vertical Trust, and Assertiveness and Positive Self-Concept, acted as preventers for negative general health. Implications These results are important from both theoretical and practical points of view. They have implications along the lines of the motivation-hygiene theory of Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman (1959), which holds that two sets of factors are separately responsible for increasing and maintaining motivation. Similarly, there is an indication in the present research that the factors responsible for improving general health may be different from those required for maintaining specific dimensions of general health. The results show that EI, as represented by a positive attitude about life, not only promotes positive general health but also precludes negative general health. Therefore, the possibility exists that there may be some common factors that are equally relevant for both intrinsic and extrinsic sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. These common factors may be related to within-individual skills, as represented by EI. These ideas need to be tested further. From a practical point of view, it might be beneficial to management practitioners if one could train employees on some individual skills and abilities to promote general health in organizations. It would be beneficial from a cost-reduction point of view because it would be more economical to prevent negative and promote positive general health than to provide poststress treatment. Limitations Through this empirical work, we have attempted to find the possible within-individual, interindividual, and organizational variables relevant to employees general health. The results largely show the importance of within-individual skills, as represented by the construct of EI. However, the results also reveal that trust in one s supervisor and organizational support are important for employees general health. There is a need to learn more about

15 General Health 271 interindividual-level variables, because the individual influences and is influenced by the environment. It should also be noted, in regard to measuring the EI construct from BarOn s (1997) original item pool of 133 items with only 21 items (on the basis of our factor analysis), (a) that the concept of EI may not have evolved in the population represented by the study sample and (b) that the construct of EI as represented through the dimensions in the present study may not be robust enough as a predictor of general health. These ideas need to be examined further with more varied samples and the inclusion of more culturally relevant items. Nonetheless, the current study may be valuable because of its empirical assessment of the construct of EI in the Indian culture, which is usually believed to be high on emotionality. The generalizabilty of the present findings needs to be carefully considered in terms of their robustness. The scales explain 18% to 21% of the variance in the criterion subdimensions of general health, which leaves substantial variance unaccounted for. Negative factors such as anxiety, negative affectivity, unhealthy coping, risky habits, and lifestyle might account for the state of general health in a better manner. Additionally, there might be an inherent scope of contamination in the choice of variables for the study in the sense that data for both general health and personality traits were obtained from the same participant source the correlations might have been overestimated. Moreover, the relations might also be reciprocal, in the sense that persons with good health have a more optimistic view of their life and work. In future research, inclusion of some objective criteria, such as illness and absenteeism rates, may be used to further strengthen the arguments. It may be also worthwhile for future research to consider samples from industries in which job stress is a more deeply rooted phenomenon than in production organizations in the medium engineering sector. In addition, it may be worthwhile to add variables that may be amenable to training and interventions that could be useful from an applied perspective. References Arrow, K. (1974). The limits of organization. New York: Norton Barnard, C. (1938). The function of the executives. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. BarOn, R. (1997). The Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i): Technical manual. Tonawanda, NY: Multi Health Systems. Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York: Wiley. Brackette, M. A., Mayer, J. D., & Warner, R. M. (in press). Emotional intelligence and its relation to everyday behavior. Personality and Individual Differences. Deluga, R. J. (1994). Supervisory trust building, leader-member exchange and organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 67,

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