Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Consumer Need for Uniqueness as Antecedents to Self- Identification as Fashion Opinion Leader vs. Fashion Opinion Seeker

Transcription

1 ii Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Consumer Need for Uniqueness as Antecedents to Self- Identification as Fashion Opinion Leader vs. Fashion Opinion Seeker Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Claire Coughlin, B.S. Graduate Program in Textiles & Clothing The Ohio State University 2009 Thesis Committee: Dr. Nancy Ann Rudd, Adviser Dr. Jae Eun Chung Dr. Susan Zavotka

2 ii Abstract This study sought to determine whether or not the antecedents to fashion opinion leadership differ from those for fashion opinion seeking with regard to body image, selfesteem, and consumer need for uniqueness. The following research questions were examined: 1. Do fashion opinion leaders have higher self-esteem than fashion opinion seekers? 2. Do fashion opinion leaders have more positive body images than fashion opinion seekers? 3. Are fashion opinion leaders more confident than fashion opinion seekers? 4. Do fashion opinion leaders engage in more appearance management behaviors than fashion opinion seekers? Furthermore, it was hypothesized that fashion opinion leaders would have a higher need for uniqueness than fashion opinion seekers. Research has examined relationships between self-identification as a fashion opinion leader or fashion opinion seeker and various factors. Body image and self-esteem are two constructs that have not yet been considered. It is possible that fashion opinion leaders will have negative body images since they may be more likely to compare themselves to media images (Muzinicha, Pecotich, & Putrevu, 2003; O Cass, 2004).

3 iii Self-esteem may also be an antecedent to fashion opinion leadership or seeking (Cash et al., 2003). Dress may improve one s feelings about oneself in those with low self-esteem, while for those with high self-esteem, clothing might be used as a visual demonstration of a positive self-concept (Creekmore, 1974; Joung & Miller, 2006). Consumer need for uniqueness has been used in previous studies to examine its effect on fashion opinion leadership and seeking. Based on their strong need for differentiation from others, research has shown that opinion leaders score higher than opinion seekers on measures of general need for uniqueness (Snyder & Fromkin, 1980; Workman & Kidd, 2000; Goldsmith & Clark, 2008). The study utilized female students majoring in Textiles & Clothing at a large, Midwestern university. The study predominantly used quantitative measures, with the exception of several open-ended questions. Each student completed an online or paper version of the survey containing standardized instruments to measure opinion leadership, body image, self-esteem, and need for uniqueness. In addition, subjects answered several open-ended questions about their level of confidence and appearance involvement and choose from a selection of photographs the outfits that most closely depict their own style. The investigators analyzed the data using descriptive statistics. Chi-square statistics were also used in the analysis since the data contains categorical responses between two (or more) independent groups (i.e., positive vs. negative body image, high vs. low self-esteem, etc.). Responses to the open-ended questions were analyzed and

4 iv placed into thematic categories. Analysis showed high reliability for each scale. In addition, the chi-square analysis showed a significant relationship (p=.003) with a small effect size between fashion opinion leadership/fashion opinion seeking and consumer need for uniqueness. However, the relationships between fashion opinion leadership/fashion opinion seeking and self-esteem and fashion opinion leadership/fashion opinion seeking and body image were insignificant with small effect sizes.

5 v Dedication This thesis is dedicated to my parents, who never failed to believe in me. It is also dedicated to my cats, who kept me calm in the most stressful of times.

6 vi Acknowledgments I would like to thank Dr. Nancy A. Rudd for her constant support, patience, and assistance throughout the thesis process. I would also like to thank Dr. Jae Eun Chung and Dr. Susan Zavotka for their many contributions to this thesis.

7 ii Vita June Regina High School March 2006 B.S. Psychology, The Ohio State University Graduate Teaching Associate, Department of Consumer Sciences, The Ohio State University Fields of Study Major Field: Textiles & Clothing ii

8 iii Table of Contents Abstract ii Dedication...v Acknowledgments...vi Vita vii List of Tables...x List of Figures xii Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Chapter 2: Review of Literature...8 Chapter 3: Methods 29 Chapter 4: Results..33 Chapter 5: Discussion 54 References.62 Appendix A: Opinion Leadership/Opinion Seeking Scale Appendix B: Consumer Need For Uniqueness Scale 70 Appendix C: Self-Esteem Scale.73 Appendix D: Body Esteem Scale..74 Appendix E: Open-Ended Questions 76 Appendix F: Personal Style Measure 77 iii

9 iv Appendix G: Demographic Information 79 Appendix H: IRB Approval Form.80 iv

10 v List of Tables Table 1: Ethnicities of the participants..33 Table 2: Levels of education of the participants 34 Table 3: Scores for Opinion Leadership and Opinion Seeking Scale 35 Table 4: Scores for Consumer Need for Uniqueness Scale...36 Table 5: Scores for the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale...36 Table 6: Scores for Body Esteem Scale.37 Table 7: Response summary for the Question 1a..38 Table 8: Response summary for Question 1b 39 Table 9: Response summary for Question Table 10: Response summary for Question 3 41 Table 11: Response summary for Question 4 42 Table 12: Response summary for Personal Style Measure 43 Table 13: Crosstabulation between Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Need for Uniqueness.44 Table 14: Chi-Square Tests for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Need for Uniqueness..45 Table 15: Effect size for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Need for Uniqueness 46 Table 16: Crosstabulation between Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Self-Esteem..47 Table 17: Chi-Square Tests for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Self-Esteem 48 v

11 vi Table 18: Effect size for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Self-Esteem..48 Table 19: Crosstabulation between Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Body Esteem 49 Table 20: Chi-Square Tests for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Body Esteem..50 Table 21: Effect size for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Body Esteem.51 Table 22: Crosstabulation Between Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Need for Uniqueness.52 Table 23: Chi-Square Tests for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Need for Uniqueness..53 Table 24: Effect size for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Need for Uniqueness 53 Table 25: Crosstabulation between Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Self-Esteem.54 Table 26: Chi-Square Tests for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Self-Esteem 54 Table 27: Effect size for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Self-Esteem..55 Table 28: Crosstabulation between Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Body Esteem 55 Table 29: Chi-Square Tests for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Body Esteem..56 Table 30: Effect size for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Body Esteem.57 vi

12 vii List of Figures Figure 1. Adopter categorization on the basis of innovativeness 8 Figure 2. Fashion transformation process model...10 Figure 3. Fashion clothing involvement antecedents and consequences...14 Figure 4. Rudd and Lennon Model of the effects of social comparison on the construction and evaluation of appearance.24 Figure 5. Conceptual Framework..27 vii

13 1 Chapter 1: Introduction In the world today, some individuals are leaders and some are followers. There is no exception in the fashion world; there are the fashion trendsetters and the fashion followers. But what factors determine an individual s self-identification as a fashion opinion leader or fashion opinion seeker or follower? Since the 1980s, people have been categorized based on the amount of time it takes for them to adopt new products. These categories include innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards (Rogers, 2003). The five categories have been applied to analyze the diffusion process of many product categories, including fashion products (Cholachatpinyo, Padgett, Crocker, & Fletcher, 2002). Previous research has examined relationships between self-identification as a fashion opinion leader or fashion opinion seeker or follower and various factors. For example, one study sought to determine the relationships between consumer s need for uniqueness, attention to social comparison information, status consumption, and role-relaxed consumption and the consumer s fashion opinion leadership and fashion opinion seeking (Bertrandias & Goldsmith, 2006; Goldsmith & Clark, 2008). Other studies analyzed characteristics common among fashion opinion leaders, such as confidence in fashion choices, desire for differentiation from others, high level of clothing involvement, high level of materialism, and being impulsive, excitable, indulgent, contemporary, liberal, and colorful. Finally, 1

14 2 one study examined the influence of two forces on an individual s self-identification as a fashion leader or fashion follower. These forces signify the individual s conflicting needs to exhibit themselves to others, while sustaining a level of modesty and conforming to the norms of society (Finkelstein, 1996; Cholachatpinyo et al., 2002). Antecedents to Opinion Leading vs. Opinion Seeking Body image and self-esteem are two constructs that have not been considered when analyzing an individual s identification as a fashion opinion leader or fashion opinion seeker. Body image is defined as an individual s perceptions and attitudes, including thoughts, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors, about his/her body (Grogan, 1999; Cash, Jakatdar, & Williams, 2003). It is a complex construct that is influenced by an individual s culture and it s cultural aesthetic ideals (Rudd & Lennon, 2001; Kim & Lennon, 2007). Past research has shown that being young, being a woman, and engaging in high rates of media consumption are positively associated with negative body image (Swami, 2008; Oberg & Tornstam, 1999). These characteristics have also been found to predict an individual s fashion clothing involvement (O Cass, 2004). Consequently, because previous studies have shown that fashion innovators are commonly young women who are have higher involvement in fashion products than fashion followers, it is possible that fashion innovators will have negative body images since they may be more likely to compare themselves to media images than fashion followers (Muzinicha, Pecotich, & Putrevu, 2003; O Cass, 2004). Alternatively, there is also evidence that being fashion forward can lead to a positive body image. An example is fashion therapy, 2

15 3 which helps people raise their self-esteem and create a positive body image through learning to dress their body type (Rose & Allen, 2001). Positively related to body image, self-esteem levels may also be an antecedent to fashion opinion leadership or fashion opinion seeking (Cash et al., 2003). Self-esteem is defined as liking and respecting oneself (Crandall, 1973; Lowery et al., 2005). Furthermore, physical appearance is part of the self and is related to self-esteem. Dress, which is one part of physical appearance, can serve numerous functions, depending on one s level of self-esteem. For instance, dress may improve one s feelings about oneself in those with low self-esteem, while for those with high self-esteem, clothing might be used as a visual demonstration of a positive self-concept (Creekmore, 1974; Joung & Miller, 2006). Consumer need for uniqueness has been used in previous studies to examine its effect on fashion opinion leadership or fashion opinion seeking. Consumer need for uniqueness is defined as an individual s desire to be different from others through acquiring products and brands that enhance the individual s self and social image (Tian, Bearden, & Hunter, 2001; Goldsmith & Clark, 2008). Consumers need for uniqueness can affect their product choices, as they attempt to demonstrate their uniqueness through their choices as well as offer advice to followers who also seek uniqueness (Fisher & Price, 1992; Workman & Caldwell, 2007). Furthermore, based on their strong need for differentiation from others, past research has shown that fashion opinion leaders score higher than fashion followers on measures of general need for uniqueness (Snyder & Fromkin, 1980; Workman & Kidd, 2000; Goldsmith & Clark, 2008). 3

16 4 Purpose of Study The purpose of the present study was to examine the relationship between body image, self-esteem, and need for uniqueness as antecedents for self-identification as a fashion opinion leader or fashion opinion seeker. Body image, self-esteem level, and consumer need for uniqueness were assessed to determine whether or not they have an influence on fashion opinion leadership or fashion opinion seeking. The study sought to determine whether or not the antecedents to fashion opinion leadership differ from those for fashion opinion seeking with regards to body image, self-esteem, and consumer need for uniqueness. The following research questions and hypotheses were proposed: 1. Do fashion opinion leaders have higher self-esteem than fashion opinion seekers? 2. Do fashion opinion leaders have more positive body images than fashion opinion seekers? 3. Are fashion opinion leaders more confident than fashion opinion seekers? 4. Do fashion opinion leaders engage in more appearance management behaviors than fashion opinion seekers? Research questions were proposed for the body image and self-esteem variables because the literature is inconclusive regarding the influence on self-identification as a fashion opinion leader or fashion opinion seeker. Furthermore, it was hypothesized that opinion leaders will have a higher need for uniqueness than opinion seekers. A hypothesis was used for the consumer need for uniqueness because the relationship between consumer need for uniqueness and self- 4

17 5 identification as a fashion opinion leader or fashion opinion seeker has been previously validated (Bertrandias & Goldsmith, 2006; Goldsmith & Clark, 2008). Significance of Study The significance of this study was to determine the potential influence of one s body image, self-esteem, and need for uniqueness on their identification as a fashion opinion leader or fashion opinion seeker. Body image and self-esteem are two constructs that have yet to be linked to fashion opinion leadership and fashion opinion seeking. Need for uniqueness, though examined in previous research, was included in this study to reinforce and further validate past findings using a different set of subjects, female college students majoring in Textiles & Clothing (Bertrandias & Goldsmith, 2006; Goldsmith & Clark, 2008). The use of female Textiles & Clothing students assisted in discovering relationships between body image, self-esteem, and need for uniqueness as antecedents for self-identification as a fashion opinion leader or fashion opinion seeker. Characteristics of these students such as being young, being female, and consuming media, such as fashion magazines, at a high rate are positively associated with negative body image (Swami, 2008; Oberg & Tornstam, 1999) and may predict an individual s fashion clothing involvement (O Cass, 2004). In conclusion, this research has contributed to further understanding of the influence of positive or negative body image on fashion opinion leadership or fashion opinion seeking, the influence of high or low self-esteem on fashion opinion leadership or fashion opinion seeking, and the influence of high or low need for uniqueness on fashion 5

18 6 opinion leadership or fashion opinion seeking. Additionally, the results of the research will ideally be considered by fashion-based businesses when developing their marketing strategies to target specific consumer groups. 6

19 7 Definition of Terms Fashion opinion leader/innovator: individuals who are the first to adopt new fashion products and influence the opinions of others through sharing their extensive knowledge of fashion products (Cholachatpinyo et al., 2002; Bertrandias & Goldsmith, 2006). Fashion opinion seeker/follower: individuals who are later to adopt new fashion products and look to fashion opinion leaders for information when attempting to make a fashion purchase (Cholachatpinyo et al., 2002; Bertrandias & Goldsmith, 2006). Differentiating force: a part of the fashion transformation process that is defined as the need for exhibiting oneself (Cholachatpinyo et al., 2002). Socializing force: a part of the fashion transformation process that is defined as the need for conforming to the social norm (Cholachatpinyo et al., 2002). Body image: an individual s perceptions and attitudes, including thoughts, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors, about his/her body (Grogan, 1999; Cash et al., 2003). Self-esteem: liking and respecting oneself (Crandall, 1973). Consumer need for uniqueness: an individual s desire to be different from others through acquiring products and brands that enhance the individual s self and social image (Tian et al., 2001). 7

20 8 Chapter 2: Review of Literature Fashion Opinion Leader vs. Fashion Opinion Seeker The concept of categorizing people based on their rate of adoption of new products, in this case fashion items, has been studied for many years. Rogers (2003) first established a system for studying the diffusion of various innovations. He defined diffusion as the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system and innovation as an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or another unit of adoption (Rogers, 2003, pp ). Furthermore, he proposed five adopter categories to classify members of society, including innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards. The following diagram displays the distributions for each adopter category in the innovation diffusion process: Figure 1. Adopter categorization on the basis of innovativeness (Rogers, 2003, p. 281) 8

21 9 Innovators are individuals who are the first to adopt a new product or service. Early adopters are individuals who accept new products or services after the first few individuals do, but before most other individuals. The early majority is the first wave of the mass market to adopt new products and generally does so before the product diffuses to many consumers. The late majority is usually slow to accept new products or services and will wait until most other individuals do so first. Laggards are the very last individuals to adopt new products or services (Rogers, 2003). As displayed in the diagram, the innovator and early adopter categories contain very little of the population, with most individuals occupying the early and late majority categories. The laggard category is the third smallest category, containing the same amount of the population as the innovator and early adopter categories combined. Connecting the diffusion process to fashion leadership, research has shown that both are influenced by a variety of social factors (Sproles & Burns, 1994). One theory, called the upper-class leadership theory, believes that those in the highest socioeconomic classes in a society initiate the fashion diffusion process. Thus, the most elite members of society adopt a fashion first, and then the fashion eventually diffuses to the lower classes. On the other hand, the mass-market theory suggests that mass marketing allows new fashions to be available to all class levels simultaneously. A third theory, the subcultural innovation theory, proposes that that subcultures or lower class groups create new fashions, which are eventually adopted by the upper classes. Finally, the theory of innovativeness and collective selection believes that any influential individual can invent 9

22 10 new, popular fashions, as long as the trend is accepted and adopted by the masses (Sproles & Burns, 1994). Applying Rogers (2003) adoption process to fashion products, Cholachatpinyo et al. (2002) discussed the fashion transformation process model, which consists of four levels: the macro-subjective level, the macro-objective level, the micro-objective level, and the micro-subjective level. The present study will focus on aspects of the microsubjective level. The following diagram displays the fashion transformation process model and all of its variables. Figure 2. Fashion transformation process model (Cholachatpinyo et al., 2002, p. 22). 10

23 11 The micro-subjective level refers to the roles of individuals in the fashion transformation process, as well as two important forces, differentiating and socializing. The differentiating force is defined as the need for exhibiting oneself, while the socializing force is defined as the need for conforming to the social norm (Cholachatpinyo et al., 2002). These two forces represent individuals conflicting desires to exhibit themselves to others, while maintaining a level of modesty and conforming to social norms (Finkelstein, 1996; Cholachatpinyo et al., 2002). The study also sought to determine participants identification as a fashion innovator, early fashion adopter, fashion follower, or laggard, as well as to establish the influence of the two forces on each individual. Similar to Roger s diffusion process, fashion innovators are the first to adopt new fashions, followed closely by early fashion adopters, and followed eventually by fashion followers and laggards. It is also important to note that multiple fashion trends emerge and experience the adoption process simultaneously at various rates and levels (Blumer, 1969; Cholachatpinyo, 2002). The study utilized a questionnaire that consisted of four sections. The first section contained questions relating to participants perceived levels of creativity, levels of consumption of fashion products, identification as a fashion leader, and image of themselves as a fashion leader to others. The second section was used to identify participants adopter category by showing them pictures of popular fashion products and asking them to estimate the amount of time it would take for them to adopt the product. The third section measured self-expression as influences by differentiating and socializing forces. The final section was used to obtain personal information from the participants. Cholachatpinyo et al. (2002) discovered that the differentiating force 11

24 12 was more important to fashion innovators, while the socializing force was more important to fashion followers and laggards. In addition, fashion innovators often feel uncomfortable wearing clothing that is similar in style or color to the masses. Therefore, it is a constant process for innovators to find new fashions to replace current ones and perpetuate their need for differentiation from others (Cholachatpinyo et al., 2002). The results also showed that laggards were generally less confident and more easily influenced by others than innovators when wearing new fashions. Innovators, on the other hand, were confident in their fashion opinions, styles, and preferences. Furthermore, innovators fashion choices were unlikely to be influenced by social forces, such as friends or the media, while laggards were very likely to be influenced by outside forces (Cholachatpinyo et al., 2002). Goldsmith (2002) also utilized Rogers diffusion process to compare heavy vs. light users on the variable of clothes shopping. Heavy users consider themselves opinion leaders who are innovative, involved, knowledgeable, and price insensitive. Opinion leaders are defined as individuals having significant experience with a certain product and can provide others with information about the product (Goldsmith, 2002). The majority of heavy users surveyed were also younger women, though heavy users of both sexes had similar psychological traits. Furthermore, heavy users used clothing as an expression of social and personal identity more often than light users. Overall, heavy users appear to possess similar psychological traits, which predict shopping intention more than age, education, or income. 12

25 13 Several other researchers also looked for antecedents and characteristics common among fashion innovators. Muzinicha et al. (2003) explored methods for identifying fashion innovators to aid companies in developing successful marketing strategies. The researchers developed a causal model of female fashion innovativeness to discover a domain-specific fashion innovator construct, identify determinants of female fashion innovativeness, and test relationships using a sample of female respondents. Some of the variables analyzed include fashion self-confidence, materialism, variety-seeking, and fashion magazine readership. The results showed that the model was useful for recognizing female fashion innovativeness. On the other hand, O Cass (2004) studied the effect of materialism and selfimage/product-image congruency on consumers involvement in fashion. Materialism relates to the level of importance an individual attaches to worldly possessions and is a key determinant in an individual s interest in fashion products. Furthermore, materialistic individuals are more likely to use possessions, in this clothing, as a form of appearance management (O Cass, 2004). In addition, he examined purchase decision involvement, subjective fashion knowledge and consumer confidence. Involvement is defined as the extent to which the consumer views the focal activity as a central part of their life, a meaningful and engaging activity in their life. (O Cass, 2004, p. 870). Confidence relates to a consumer s level of trust in their knowledge related to fashion products. 13

26 14 Figure 3. Fashion clothing involvement antecedents and consequences (O Cass, 2004, p. 870). A survey was used to measure respondents level of materialism, fashion clothing involvement, fashion clothing knowledge, and decision-making confidence. Results of the study showed that materialism, gender, and age had effects on fashion clothing involvement. Specifically, young females with high degrees of materialism displayed higher involvement in fashion products. He also found that fashion clothing involvement influences fashion clothing knowledge, which then influences a consumer s confidence in making fashion-related purchase decisions (O Cass, 2004). The model in Figure 3 indicates the variance contributed by each variable to the overall model. The variances are as follows: H1=0.23, H2=0.07, H3=0.04, H4=0.55, H5=0.35, H6=0.03. Phau & Lo (2004) sought to provide a demographic profile of fashion innovators, identify the differences in self-concepts between innovators and non-innovators, and discover a potential relationship between innovators and impulse purchasers, especially 14

27 15 in the context of online shopping. Some characteristics of innovators include having a unique self-image, which the study defined as being impulsive, excitable, indulgent, contemporary, liberal, and colorful. Furthermore, results showed no difference between fashion innovators and non-innovators in intention to purchase from the Internet, though innovators may be more likely to use the Internet to gain product knowledge. Goldsmith continued his research of fashion opinion leaders and fashion followers or opinion seekers in 2006 and Bertrandias & Goldsmith (2006) looked for relationships between a consumer s need for uniqueness and attention to social comparison information and the consumer s fashion opinion leadership and fashion opinion seeking. Fashion opinion leaders are known to influence the opinions of others through sharing their extensive knowledge of fashion products. Fashion opinion seekers look to fashion opinion leaders for information when attempting to make a fashion purchase. Need for uniqueness proposes that people do not enjoy being considered too similar to others and, therefore, are motivated to make themselves dissimilar. Attention to social comparison focuses on one s concern about others reactions to her/his own behavior (Bertrandias & Goldsmith, 2006, p. 29). Results showed that need for uniqueness and attention to social comparison information are both positively related to fashion opinion leadership. On the other hand, attention to social comparison information is positively related to fashion opinion seeking, but need for uniqueness is negatively related to fashion opinion seeking. Building on the 2006 study, Goldsmith & Clark (2008) sought to test relationships between a consumer s need for uniqueness, attention to social comparison information, 15

28 16 status consumption, and role-relaxed consumption and opinion leadership and opinion seeking for clothing. Status consumption is defined as the motivational process by which individuals strive to improve their social standing through the conspicuous consumption of consumer products that confer and symbolize status both for the individual and surrounding significant others (Eastman, Goldsmith, & Flynn, 1999; Goldsmith & Clark, 2008, p. 312). A role-relaxed consumer is concerned with utilitarian aspects of products, is unconcerned with conforming to social expectations, and is intelligent, relatively affluent, self confident, and logical. They found that need for uniqueness was positively related to opinion leadership, but negatively related to opinion seeking for younger consumers. Also, attention to social comparison information showed a higher positive relationship for opinion seekers than for opinion leaders. Finally, status consumption had the most significant positive association, while role-relaxed consumption had the most significant negative association. However, two variables that Goldsmith has not explored are body image and self-esteem, and the influence they might have on an individual s identification as a fashion opinion leader or fashion opinion seeker. Body Image as an Antecedent to Opinion Leading vs. Opinion Seeking Body image is defined as an individual s perceptions and attitudes, including thoughts, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors, about his/her body (Grogan, 1999; Cash et al., 2003). One s attitude towards body image consists of two sub-constructs, which are body image evaluation/affect and body image investment. Body image evaluation/affect is an individual s satisfaction or dissatisfaction with his/her appearance. Body image 16

29 17 investment is the cognitive-behavioral importance of one s appearance and its salience to one s sense of self (Cash et al., 2003, p. 279). In addition, an individual s body image is affected by the positive or negative thoughts he/she has about him/herself. Positive thoughts can increase self-esteem levels and lead to success in many aspects of life. On the other hand, negative thoughts can decrease self-confidence and, in some cases, lead to depression (Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). Furthermore, body image is a psychological process that is sensitive to changes in mood, environment, and physical experience, and is greatly influenced by self-esteem (Lightstone, 1999; O Mahony & Hall, 2007). The development of body image is influenced by one s culture and its cultural aesthetic ideals (Rudd & Lennon, 2001; Kim & Lennon, 2007). In the U.S. and other Westernized societies, thinness and attractiveness are highly valued features for women (Silverstein, Perdue, Peterson, & Kelly, 1986; Kim & Lennon, 2007). Other than thinness, some characteristics that are deemed attractive in Westernized cultures include White skin, tall height, youth, physical fitness, and health (Thompson et al., 1999, p. 125). Consequently, an individual s desire to embody the ideal is likely motivated by evaluations from and comparisons to others, such as family, friends, and images in the media (Thompson & Stice, 2001; Kim & Lennon, 2007). The motivation to compare oneself with others is considered to be innate and helps an individual realize their characteristics, strengths, liabilities, and capabilities (Thompson et al., 1999, p. 126). Furthermore, though it has been proposed that all women are exposed to idealized media 17

30 18 images to some extent, the effect on body image varies greatly from woman to woman (Thompson et al., 1999). Another factor in the development of body image relates to the cognitive concept of body image schema. Body image schema is defined as an organization of information about one s physical self (Thompson et al., 1999, p. 272). Overall, the schema can be positive or negative, and is most likely connected to other areas of cognition. For example, the self, which is considered a significant cognitive structure, can become heavily influenced by appearance-based factors as a result of body image schemas. Furthermore, an individual with a negative schema may assume others are evaluating the individual s appearance in the same negative way that he/she is evaluating his/her appearance (Thompson et al., 1999). Much research on body image has focused on investigating eating disorders among young women (Cash et al., 2003). While this research is highly beneficial, it leads people to believe that body image only concerns the body weights and shapes of females. Past studies have shown that women generally have more negative body images than men (Cash et al., 2003). Consequently, having a negative body image is associated with body dissatisfaction and a dysfunctional investment in one s appearance (Cash et al., 2003, p. 280). This dysfunctional investment may include more objectified body consciousness and internalization of cultural beauty standards (Cash et al., 2003, p. 284). Furthermore, being young, being a woman, and engaging in high rates of media consumption are found to have a negative impact on body image (Swami, 2008; Öberg & Tornstam, 1999). Consequently, these characteristics are also frequently found to be 18

31 19 determinants of one s fashion clothing involvement (O Cass, 2004). Therefore, since studies have shown that fashion innovators are generally young women who dedicate more attention to fashion magazines than fashion followers, it is possible that fashion innovators will experience negative body images since they may compare themselves to media images more so than fashion followers (Muzinicha et al., 2003; O Cass, 2004). Though there appear to be many associations between negative body image and identification as a fashion innovator, there is also evidence that being fashionable can lead to a positive body image. One concept is fashion therapy, which helps people learn to dress their body type in an effort to raise self-esteem and create a positive body image (Rose & Allen, 2001). For example, on the television show "How to Look Good Naked," host Carson Kressley performs fashion therapy on one woman during each episode, helping her to overcome her negative body image issues and offering useful fashion advice. Kressley shows women how to embrace and dress their unique body types and shapes, which can be very beneficial to self-acceptance and the attainment of a positive body image (Diederich, 2008). In the case of girls and women with eating disorders, several inpatient clinics have recruited designers to donate clothes for patients to wear. Psychiatrists have proposed that giving women with a poor body image the opportunity to try on fashion labels can help boost their self-esteem (Goodchild & Sheppard, 2001). In addition, among women, positive body image is related to coping with perceived shortcomings through positive rational acceptance rather than through appearance fixing strategies and mechanisms of avoidance (Cash et al., 2003, p. 284). Taking all 19

32 20 of these factors into consideration, does fashion leadership stem from a negative body image or from a positive body image? Self-Esteem as an Antecedent to Opinion Leading vs. Opinion Seeking Another antecedent that is important to take into consideration is self-esteem, which is defined as liking and respecting oneself (Crandall, 1973; Lowery et al., 2005). For over 50 years, self-esteem has been a very important concept in social psychology (Rosenberg, Schooler, Schoenbach, & Rosenberg, 1995). The majority of the literature focuses on global self-esteem, which includes the overall positive or negative feelings an individual has for the self (Rosenberg et al., 1995). However, domain-specific or trait self-esteem, which refers to elements of self-esteem related to different self-perceptions, is most often used to explain an individual s behavior (Rosenberg et al., 1995; Lowery et al., 2005). In addition, physical self-worth is thought to be a component of self-esteem that relates to constructs such as perceived sport competence, physical condition, attractiveness, and weight concern (Franzoi & Shields, 1984). Therefore, since body image is also an aspect of physical self-worth, dissatisfaction related to body image is related to global self-esteem (Lowery et al., 2005). Physical appearance is part of the self and is related to self-esteem. Self-esteem is defined as people s feelings about their worth or value. Furthermore, self-esteem reveals a lot about people s perceptions of others feelings about them (Rosenberg, 1979). These feelings about personal appearance, along with other dimensions of the self, are the foundations of self-esteem (Joung & Miller, 2006). One significant aspect of appearance is dress, which can serve various purposes, depending on an individual s self-esteem 20

33 21 level. For example, one study observed that clothing might be used as an adaptive function for individuals with low self-esteem and as an expressive function for individuals with high self-esteem. In other words, for those with low self-esteem, dress improves one s feelings about oneself, while for those with high self-esteem, clothing is used as a visual representation of a positive self-concept. Therefore, all individuals construct their appearances (i.e., engage in appearance management, though their motives and levels of management may differ based on self-esteem levels (Creekmore, 1974; Joung & Miller, 2006). In another study, Joung & Miller (2006) discovered that appearance management is a significant predictor of self-esteem in women aged 55 and older. Their results indicated that older women who frequently engage in appearance management behaviors have higher levels of self-esteem than those who are less involved in appearance management. Marketers commonly acknowledge self-esteem as the most significant motivation for consumer behavior (Banister & Hogg, 2003). Consequently, consumers decisions are heavily influenced by their desire to enhance or protect their self-esteem (Grubb & Grathwohl, 1967; Banister & Hogg, 2003). This is important because self-esteem is associated with acceptance by significant others and also involves both approach and avoidance behaviors (Banister & Hogg, 2003). Approach behaviors relate to maintenance and enhancement of an individual s self-esteem. On the other hand, avoidance behaviors relate to protecting self-esteem by avoiding negative risks represented by the dreaded self (Banister & Hogg, 2003). 21

34 22 Past research has also shown a positive relationship between self-esteem and body image. That is, positive body image usually results in high self-esteem, while negative body image usually results in low self-esteem (Cash et al., 2003). In a 2002 study, Furnham, Badmin, and Sneade hypothesized that individuals who are dissatisfied with their bodies will have lower self-esteem in general. The hypothesis was supported and the researchers also discovered that body image dissatisfaction is more closely related to low self-esteem for females than for males. The results of the study further confirmed that a relationship exists between body satisfaction and self-esteem, and that female body image satisfaction is highly correlated with self-esteem (Lerner, Karabenick, & Stuart, 1973; Furnham et al., 2002). Self-Esteem and Appearance Another way to link appearance and self-esteem is through social comparison theory. According to social comparison theory, individuals are highly motivated to selfevaluate (Festinger, 1954). Consequently, in the absence of an objective standard, individuals will turn to others as a source for comparison (Festinger, 1954). Ideally, the comparison targets are similar in significant aspects such as age, appearance, and race to the individual engaging in social comparison (Festinger, 1954). Comparing oneself to a similar target produces the most accurate evaluation of an individual s abilities and opinions (Festinger, 1954). In addition to comparisons of abilities and opinions, individuals frequently compare themselves to others on the basis of appearance (Lennon & Rudd, 1994). Therefore, based on social comparison theory, the relationship between appearance and self-esteem has been a topic of interest in past research (Morse & Gergen, 22

35 ; Lennon & Rudd, 1994). Specifically, studies have analyzed the effects of comparing oneself to attractive media images. These frequent comparisons can lead to decreased self-esteem and general dissatisfaction with one s body (Lennon & Rudd, 1994). As a result, individuals may engage in certain appearance management behaviors in an attempt to imitate media images of ideal beauty (Lennon & Rudd, 1994). These appearance management behaviors, which include the use of cosmetics, hair products, and clothing, may help an individual increase their self-esteem (Lennon & Rudd, 1994). Furthermore, Rudd & Lennon (1994) combined concepts from social comparison theory and social identity theory to create a model. The model proposes that individuals use cultural ideals to construct and evaluate both their own appearances and the appearances of others (Rudd & Lennon, 1994). The model also includes evaluations of one s appearance by others. Consequently, an individual s self-esteem is increased if their appearance is similar to the ideal, contributing to a stronger identity and self-image. On the other hand, an individual may engage in coping strategies if their appearance is not similar to the ideal (Rudd & Lennon, 1994). 23

36 24 Figure 4. Rudd and Lennon Model of the effects of social comparison on the construction and evaluation of appearance (Rudd & Lennon, 1994) Consumer Need for Uniqueness as an Antecedent to Opinion Leading vs. Opinion Seeking Consumer need for uniqueness is defined as an individual s desire to be different from others through acquiring products and brands that enhance the individual s self and social image (Tian et al., 2001; Goldsmith & Clark, 2006). In addition, consumer need for uniqueness consists of three factors, which include creative choice counterconformity, unpopular choice counter-conformity, and avoidance of similarity. Creative choice counter-conformity refers to the selection of products and brands that are different from the norm, but are still deemed appropriate and acceptable in society (Tian et al., 2001; Goldsmith & Clark, 2006). Unpopular choice counter-conformity refers to consumer decisions that result in the individual appearing distinctive from others (Tian et 24

37 25 al., 2001; Goldsmith & Clark, 2006). Avoidance of similarity refers to the deliberate avoidance of popular products or brands (Tian et al., 2001; Goldsmith & Clark, 2006). Individual differences in consumer need for uniqueness can have a significant effect on product choices, as individuals strive to define their uniqueness through their choices as well as offer advice to followers who also seek uniqueness (Fisher and Price, 1992; Workman & Caldwell, 2007). However, consumers with a high need for uniqueness will often continue to analyze the products selected by other individuals, even after making a product decision. This is likely due to the fact that having a high need for uniqueness results in becoming quickly dissatisfied with products and feeling a frequent need to replace current products with new products (Miller, McIntyre, & Mantrala, 1993; Workman & Caldwell, 2007). With regard to self-esteem, one might assume that consumers with a high need for uniqueness would also have high self-esteem. This assumption can be attributed to the fact that individualism is a dominant theme in the United States (Clark & Goldsmith, 2005). Consequently, seeking to be individualistic through challenging social norms without regret is assumed to require a significant amount self-confidence and high selfesteem (Clark & Goldsmith, 2005). However, research suggests that possessing a high need for uniqueness is actually the result of a poor evaluation of the self, which likely leads to low self-esteem (Fromkin, 1972; Clark & Goldsmith, 2005). Therefore, individuals with low self-esteem may emphasize the importance of feeling different from others to evaluate themselves more positively. On the other hand, having high selfesteem should result in positive evaluations of the self that are not dependent on feeling 25

38 26 different from other consumers in their product and brand choices (Clark & Goldsmith, 2005). Research has found that opinion leaders need to feel visibly distinguished from others (Chan & Misra, 1990; Goldsmith & Clark, 2006). Techniques for opinion leaders to feel differentiated from others include giving advice about products and services to other people, looking for emerging innovations, being among the first to accept fashion trends, and disposing of fashions that had become popular (Thompson & Haytko, 1997; Workman & Caldwell, 2007). As a result of this strong need for differentiation from others, researchers have discovered that fashion opinion leaders score higher than fashion followers on measures of general need for uniqueness (Snyder & Fromkin, 1980; Workman & Kidd, 2000; Goldsmith & Clark, 2006). Furthermore, several other studies have shown a weak relationship between consumer need for uniqueness and fashion opinion leadership (Bertrandias and Goldsmith, 2006; Clark and Goldsmith, 2005). Conceptual Framework The following model was created to summarize the independent, mediating, and dependent variables in the study. 26

39 27 Figure 5. Conceptual Framework The framework conceptualizes the following research questions and hypothesis: 1. Do fashion opinion leaders have higher self-esteem than fashion opinion seekers? 2. Do fashion opinion leaders have more positive body images than fashion opinion seekers? 3. Are fashion opinion leaders more confident than fashion opinion seekers? 4. Do fashion opinion leaders engage in more appearance management behaviors than fashion opinion seekers? 5. Opinion leaders will have a higher need for uniqueness than opinion seekers. 27

40 28 The independent variables are consumer need for uniqueness, self-esteem, and body image. Consumer need for uniqueness, which was measured using the Consumer Need for Uniqueness Scale, was hypothesized to have a direct influence on fashion opinion leadership. Self-esteem, which was measured by Rosenberg s Self-Esteem Scale, and body image, which was measured using the Body Esteem Scale, were proposed to be influenced by one another and mediated by confidence and appearance management behaviors. The mediating variables, confidence and appearance management behaviors, were measured using open-ended questions. Finally, the dependent variable, fashion opinion leadership, was measured using the Opinion Leadership/Opinion Seeking Scale. 28

41 29 Chapter 3: Method Sample The study utilized female students majoring in Textiles & Clothing at The Ohio State University. Characteristics of these students such as being young, being female, and consuming media, such as fashion magazines, at a high rate are positively linked to negative body image (Swami, 2008; Oberg & Tornstam, 1999) and may predict the level of fashion clothing involvement (O Cass, 2004). Approval from the Human Subjects Institutional Review Board was obtained prior to the study. The target sample size was subjects. Instruments The study utilized a mixed methods approach. The study predominantly used quantitative measures, with the exception of four open-ended questions and a measure of personal style. Each student completed an online or paper survey containing the following standardized instruments: Opinion Leadership Scale, Opinion Seeking Scale, Consumer Need for Uniqueness Scale, Rosenberg s Self-Esteem Scale, and Body Esteem Scale. A median split was utilized when scoring each scale. Each measure is a multiitem scale and is proven to be a valid and reliable measure of the various constructs. In addition, subjects answered four open-ended questions about their level of confidence and chose from a selection of three photographs an outfit that most closely depicted their own style. 29

42 30 Opinion Leadership and Opinion Seeking Scale. To measure fashion opinion leadership and fashion opinion seeking, the scale developed by Flynn, Goldsmith, and Eastman (1996) and edited by Bertrandias & Goldsmith (2006) was utilized to specifically measure clothing opinion leadership and opinion seeking. The scale included twelve items and was answered using a 5-point Likert scale, from Strongly Disagree (1) to Strongly Agree (5). Sample items included, I often influence people s opinions about clothes and I like to get others opinions before I buy a new clothing item. The reliability for this scale is 0.86 (Flynn et al., 1996). See Appendix A. Consumer Need for Uniqueness Scale. Consumers need for uniqueness was measured with the 31-item scale developed by Tian, Bearden, and Hunter (2001). The questionnaire utilized a 5-point Likert scale with responses ranging from Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree. Sample items included, I give up wearing fashions I've purchased once they become popular among the general public and I'm often on the lookout for new products or brands that will add to my personal uniqueness. The reliability for this scale is 0.95 (Tian et al., 2001). See Appendix B. Self-Esteem Scale. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale was used to measure subjects global self-esteem. Each of the ten statements measured overall feelings of selfworth or self-acceptance (Rosenberg, 1965). The original sample for which the scale was developed consisted of 5,024 High School Juniors and Seniors from 10 randomly selected schools in New York State. The questionnaire utilized a 5-point Likert scale with responses ranging from Strongly Disagree (1) to Strongly Agree (5). Five of the ten items were reverse scored. Traditionally, the scale utilizes a 4-point Likert scale, but the 30

43 31 present study included a neutral option to minimize forced choice. Example questions included, On the whole, I am satisfied with myself and I take a positive attitude toward myself (Rosenberg, 1965). High scores indicate high self-esteem. Rosenberg (1965) reported internal consistency reliability ranging from.85 to.88 for college samples. See Appendix C. Body Esteem Scale. The Body Esteem Scale, created by Mendelson, White, and Mendelson (1998) was used to measure subjects general feelings about body and weight (Merchant, 2002). The scale contained three subscales: appearance, attribution, and weight. Each of the 19 items in the three subscales were rated using a 5-point Likert scale, with responses ranging from Strongly Disagree (1) to Strongly Agree (5). Sample items included: I like what I see in the mirror and I feel ashamed of how I look. High scores coincide with high levels of body esteem (Merchant, 2002). The reliability of this scale ranges between 0.87 and 0.90 for the three subscales (Mendelson et al., 1998). See Appendix D. Open-Ended Questions. To determine each participant s level of confidence, four open-ended questions were included in the survey. Responses from the questions were placed into thematic categories. See Appendix E. Personal Style Measure. Subjects selected from a set of six photographs the two outfits that most closely represent their own personal style. Two photographs represented fashion forward outfits, two photographs represented fashion neutral outfits, and two photographs represented fashion follower outfits. This instrument was developed by the investigator and was pilot tested using 10 graduate students from the Consumer Sciences 31

44 32 department at The Ohio State University. The photographs were ordered as displayed in the appendix. See Appendix F. Demographic Questions. Questions to obtain demographic information including age, level of education, and ethnicity were included in the questionnaire. See Appendix G. Participants completed the questionnaire in the following order: Opinion Leadership and Opinion Seeking Scale, Open-Ended Questions, Consumer Need For Uniqueness Scale, Self-Esteem Scale, Personal Style Measure, Body Esteem Scale, and Demographic Questions. Participants completing the paper version of the questionnaire in the Textiles & Clothing class received extra credit. Data Analysis Data obtained from the online questionnaire was entered into SPSS software. The investigators analyzed the data using descriptive statistics. Chi-square statistics were also used in the analysis since the data contained categorical responses between two (or more) independent groups (i.e., positive vs. negative body image, high vs. low self-esteem, etc.). Responses to the open-ended questions were analyzed and placed into thematic categories. 32

45 33 Chapter 4: Results Sample The consent form and online questionnaire were distributed via to undergraduate Textiles & Clothing students, according to the method approved by the Human Subjects Institutional Review Board (Approval #2009B0014) (See Appendix H). Hard copies of the consent form and questionnaire were also distributed in a junior level Textiles & Clothing class to increase response rates. A total of 156 surveys were completed and included in the data analysis. Respondent Characteristics Demographics. The participants were between the ages of 19 and 51 years. The mean age was 21.7 years. The ethnicities of the participants included the following (N=156): Ethnicity N % Caucasian % African-American % Asian or Pacific Islander % Hispanic 4 2.6% Other 1 0.0% No response % Total % Table 1: Ethnicities of the participants 33

46 34 The levels of education of the participants included the following (N=156): Level of Education N % College freshman 4 2.6% College sophomore % College junior % College senior % Other 2 1.3% No response % Total % Table 2: Levels of education of the participants Fashion Opinion Leadership Scale. Participants were asked to indicate their level of agreement with the twelve items included on the scale measuring fashion opinion leadership. Responses were measured using a 5-point Likert scale, with a 1 indicating Strongly Disagree and a 5 indicating Strongly Agree. The greater the score for each participant, the greater the level of fashion opinion leadership. Items 2, 4, 6, 7, 9, and 11, which measured the level of Opinion Seeking, were reverse scored. Though the Opinion Leadership and Opinion Seeking scales are traditionally scored independently, the researchers chose to combine the two scales into one scale. Combining the scales allowed the respondents to be divided into two categories (opinion leaders and opinion seekers) using a single score, rather than having to analyze two scores for each participant if the scales were scored separately. To the researchers knowledge, previous studies have not used a combined scale when measuring opinion leadership and opinion seeking levels. The scores for the scale ranged from 22 to 54 out of a possible range of 12 to 60, with a mean score of (SD=6.54). The mean score indicates a moderate 34

47 35 level of fashion opinion leadership overall for the sample. The level of reliability for the scale was 0.782, suggesting strong reliability. In this combined scale, participants scoring between 12 and 33 were considered opinion seekers, while participants scoring between 39 and 60 were considered opinion leaders. Participants with scores between 34 and 38 were considered to be neutral and were omitted from the analysis. Opinion Leadership and Opinion Seeking Scale N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation 153 (NR=3) Table 3: Scores for Opinion Leadership and Opinion Seeking Scale Consumer Need for Uniqueness Scale. The Consumer Need for Uniqueness scale was used to measure participants desire to be different from others through acquiring products and brands that enhance their self and social image. Responses to the 31 items were scored using a 5-point Likert scale, with a 1 indicating Strongly Disagree and a 5 indicating Strongly Agree. Higher scores indicated a higher need for uniqueness. The scores for the respondents ranged from 43 to 126 out of a possible range of 31 to 155. The mean score for the scale was 90.58, indicating a moderate need for uniqueness overall. In addition, the standard deviation of indicates a large variance between respondents. The median score of 91 was used to split the scores into low and high levels of need for uniqueness. The level of reliability was

48 36 Consumer Need for Uniqueness Scale N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation 116 (NR=40) Table 4: Scores for Consumer Need for Uniqueness Scale Rosenberg s Self-Esteem Scale. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale was used to measure participants global self-esteem. Each of the ten statements measured overall feelings of self-worth or self-acceptance. A 5-point Likert scale was employed to measure respondents level of agreement with each item, where a 1 represented Strongly Disagree and a 5 represented Strongly Agree. Negatively worded items were reverse scored, according to the guidelines of the scale. The greater the score, the greater the participant s level of global self-esteem. Scores ranged from 25 to 50 out of a possible range of 10 to 50. The mean score of (SD=5.73) indicates that the respondents had relatively strong self-esteem overall. The median score of 40 was used to split the scores into low and high levels of self-esteem. The level of reliability for the scale was N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Self-Esteem Scale (NR=23) Table 5: Scores for the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale 36

49 37 Body Esteem Scale. The Body Esteem scale was utilized to measure the variable of body image. More specifically, the scale measured participants general feelings about their body and weight. Each of the 19 items across the three subscales (appearance, attribution, and weight) was rated using a 5-point Likert scale, with responses ranging from Strongly Disagree (1) to Strongly Agree (5). Negatively worded items were reverse scored. High scores indicate high levels of body esteem. The scores for the scale ranged from 38 to 89 out of a possible range of 19 to 95. The mean score was 64.04, which indicates respondents had relatively strong body esteem overall. However, as the standard deviation of suggests, there was a large spread of scores from low to high on this variable. The median score of 63.5 was used to split the scores into low and high levels of body esteem. The reliability for the scale was Body Esteem Scale 126 (NR=30) N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Table 6: Scores for Body Esteem Scale Open-Ended Questions. The questionnaire contained the following open-ended questions: 1a. How confident on a scale of 1-5 (1=not confident, 5=very confident) are you in your appearance and fashion choices? This question was used to measure the variable of 37

50 38 confidence in relation to fashion opinion leadership and fashion opinion seeking. The responses are displayed in Table 7 (N=156). Level of confidence N % 1 (not confident) 0 0.0% % % % 5 (very confident) % No response % Total % Table 7: Response summary for the Question 1a Thus, the majority of respondents were confident or very confident about their appearances and their fashion choices as they constructed those appearances. A probing follow-up question focused on specific reasons for this perceived selfconfidence: 1b. What factors have helped you to determine your level of confidence? Responses were categorized into themes as displayed in Table 8 (N=156). 38

51 39 Theme N % Positive or negative % reactions from others Choose what I like/looks % good/represents me Flattering/fits % well/comfortable Putting together unique 8 5.1% outfits/being different Fashion classes/working in 8 5.1% the fashion industry Fashion blogs/media/trend 7 4.5% forecasting Overall mood/being in good 6 3.8% shape Maturity 4 2.6% Moving to a new city 2 1.3% No response % Total % Table 8: Response summary for Question 1b The theme with the largest number of responses suggests that many of the respondents relied on compliments or critiques from others to determine their levels of confidence. In addition, many respondents also choose fashions they like and felt that those fashions represented their selves in a positive manner to others. Examples of the responses included: I am a confident person and although I do value opinions of others, it ultimately comes down to what I feel comfortable in and represents me, I like having a unique sense of style. I like choosing pieces that no one else has or no one else will 39

52 40 wear them that way. I often refer to fashion blogs for new fashion ideas, and I strongly rely on compliments from other people to decide whether I will wear an item again. A second open-ended question was used to determine the level of influence that the variables of body image and self-esteem had on the respondents confidence in their appearances and their fashion choices: 2. How strongly does your body image and selfesteem affect your level of confidence? Responses ranged from no effect to very strongly and are displayed in Table 9 (N=156). Level of influence N % No effect 3 1.9% Not strongly 7 4.5% Neutral % Strongly % Very strongly % No response % Total % Table 9: Response summary for Question 2 The results show that the majority of the respondents felt that their body image and selfesteem strongly or very strongly affected their levels of confidence in appearance and fashion choices. Some examples of responses for this question include the following: A lot. My self-esteem makes me feel a lot more comfortable in my body when I feel confident, How I feel about my body that day reflects in how confident I am in my clothing and appearance, and Just like any other girl, I sometimes have self-esteem issues with my physical (as well as mental) health. The media of course always pushes 40

53 41 girls, including myself, to be thinner and more beautiful but I really try to just be happy with myself the way that I am and to accept what makes me, me. Two questions were also included to measure the appearance management behaviors of the respondents. The first question measured the amount of time that respondents dedicated to managing their appearance on a daily basis: 3. Approximately how many hours per day do you spend managing your appearance (i.e., choosing an outfit, applying cosmetics, styling hair, etc.)? The responses were divided into categories and are displayed in Table 10 (N=156). Number of hours N % Less than % 1 to less than % 2 to less than % 3 or more 5 3.2% No response % Total % Table 10: Response summary for Question 3 Consequently, the majority of respondents dedicated less than two hours per day to engaging in appearance management behaviors. However, one respondent claimed to spend up to five hours per day managing her appearance. Some examples of responses for the question included: Depends. If I am just going to class or something like that it takes me 30 minutes. If I am going out it takes about 1 hour and 15 minutes, About an hour, from picking out my outfit, applying makeup, hair styling, accessorizing, to putting on my shoes, and When I go to class or to the grocery store I don t spend that much 41

54 42 time on my image, maybe minutes. When I m going to work I usually spend an hour or two. The second appearance management question measured the amount of money that respondents spent each month on products and services used to manage their appearances: 4. Approximately how much money do you spend per month on products to manage your appearance (i.e., clothing, cosmetics, hair products/services, etc.)? The responses were categorized and displayed in Table 11 (N=156). Amount of money N % $ % $ % $ % $ % >$ % No response % Total % Table 11: Response summary for Question 4 As shown in the table, most of the respondents spent less than $100 per month on clothing, cosmetics, and other products and services used to manage their appearances. However, several respondents admitted to spending more than $500 per month on appearance management products and services. Some examples of responses included: I work at a clothing store so appearance is everything when trying to sell a certain look or image. Because of this I find myself spending $100 a month on hair and about $200 a month on clothing, If I had to guess, less than $100 and definitely no more than that 42

55 43 either. I work in retail, so I get associate discounts, which helps control cost in clothing, and I spend about $50-$75 per month on clothing, cosmetics, and hair products. Personal Style Measure. Participants were also asked to select, from six photographs of outfits, the two outfits that most closely reflect their personal style. Two of the six photographs were dedicated to each of three categories: fashion follower, fashion neutral, and fashion leader. The six photographs were pilot-tested during Winter 2009 by graduate students in the Textiles & Clothing program to determine that these six photographs represented current styles that undergraduate women would find fashionable (See Appendix F). Scores were recoded to represent the three categories of outfits. To be considered a fashion follower, respondents must have selected either two fashion follower outfits or one fashion follower outfit and one fashion neutral outfit. To be considered fashion neutral, respondents must have selected either two fashion neutral outfits or one fashion follower outfit and one fashion leader outfit. To be considered a fashion leader, respondents must have selected either two fashion leader outfits or one fashion leader outfit and one fashion neutral outfit. Results are displayed in Table 12 (N=156). Outfit category N % Fashion follower % Fashion neutral % Fashion leader % No response % Total % Table 12: Response summary for Personal Style Measure 43

56 % of respondents identified with the Fashion Follower (FF) outfits. 25.0% of the respondents choose the Fashion Neutral (FN) outfits. 38.5% of the respondents identified with the Fashion Leader (FL) outfits. Thus, the category with the most respondents was fashion leaders. Differences Between Opinion Leaders and Opinion Seekers Chi-square statistics were used in the analysis since the data contains categorical responses between two (or more) independent groups (i.e., positive vs. negative body image, high vs. low self-esteem, etc.). The first chi-square test examined differences in need for uniqueness (CNFU) between opinion leaders and opinion seekers. The results are displayed in Tables 13 and 14. Opinion Leadership/ Seeking Total 1 2 Need for Uniqueness 1 2 Total Count Expected Count % within CNFU 63.0% 35.0% 48.2% Count Expected Count % within CNFU 37.0% 65.0% 51.8% Count Expected Count % within CNFU 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Table 13: Crosstabulation between Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Need for Uniqueness 44

57 45 Scores on the Opinion Leadership and Opinion Seeking Scale were recoded using a median split. 1 represents scores between 12 and 39 and 2 represents scores between 40 and 60. As for the Consumer Need for Uniqueness scale, 1 represents scores between 31 and 90 and 2 represents scores between 91 and 155. As displayed in Table 13, 63.0% of the respondents were categorized as opinion seekers with a low need for uniqueness, while 35.0% were categorized as opinion seekers with a high need for uniqueness. On the other hand, 37.0% of the respondents were categorized as opinion leaders with a low need for uniqueness, while 65.0% were categorized as opinion leaders with a high need for uniqueness. Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Exact Sig. (2- sided) Exact Sig. (1- sided) Pearson Chi-Square a Continuity Correction b Likelihood Ratio Fisher's Exact Test Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid Cases 114 Table 14: Chi-Square Tests for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Need for Uniqueness The results in Table 14 indicate that there is a statistically significant relationship between opinion leadership and consumer need for uniqueness (χ 2 df=1=8.900, p=0.003). The effect size was also calculated for the two data sets and displayed in Table 15. The 45

58 46 value of indicates a small effect size for the difference between Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Need for Uniqueness. Nominal by Nominal Value Asymp. Std. Error a Approx. T b Approx. Sig. Phi Cramer's V Interval by Interval Pearson's R c Ordinal by Ordinal Spearman Correlation N of Valid Cases c Table 15: Effect size for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Need for Uniqueness The second chi-square test examined differences in self-esteem (SE) between opinion leaders and opinion seekers. The results are displayed in Tables 16 and 17. Opinion Leadership/ Seeking Total 1 2 Self-Esteem 1 2 Total Count Expected Count % within SE 55.9% 40.8% 47.7% Count Expected Count % within SE 44.1% 59.2% 52.3% Count Expected Count % within SE 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Table 16: Crosstabulation between Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Self-Esteem 46

59 47 Scores on the Self-Esteem scale were recoded using a median split. 1 represents scores between 10 and 39 and 2 represents scores between 40 and 50. As displayed in Table 16, 55.9% of the respondents were categorized as opinion seekers with low self-esteem, while 40.8% were categorized as opinion seekers with high self-esteem. On the other hand, 44.1% of the respondents were categorized as opinion leaders with low self-esteem, while 59.2% were categorized as opinion leaders with high self-esteem. Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square a Continuity Correction b Likelihood Ratio Exact Sig. (2- sided) Exact Sig. (1- sided) Fisher's Exact Test Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid Cases Table 17: Chi-Square Tests for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Self-Esteem The results in Table 17 indicate that there is not a statistically significant relationship between opinion leadership and self-esteem (χ 2 df=1=2.940, p=0.086). The effect size was also calculated for the two data sets and displayed in Table 18. The value of indicates a small effect size for the difference between Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Self-Esteem. 47

60 48 Value Asymp. Std. Approx. Error a Approx. T b Sig. Nominal by Nominal Interval by Interval Ordinal by Ordinal Spearman Correlation Phi Cramer's V Pearson's R c N of Valid Cases c Table 18: Effect size for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Self-Esteem The third and final chi-square test examined participants responses on the Opinion Leadership and Opinion Seeking Scale with their responses on the Body Esteem Scale (BE). The results are displayed in Tables 19 and 20. Body Esteem 1 2 Total Opinion Leadership/ Seeking 1 2 Count Expected Count % within BE 50.8% 46.7% 48.8% Count Expected Count % within BE 49.2% 53.3% 51.2% Expected Count % within BE 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Table 19: Crosstabulation between Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Body Esteem 48

61 49 Scores on the Body Esteem scale were recoded using a median split. 1 represents scores between 19 and 63 and 2 represents scores between 64 and 95. As displayed in Table 19, 50.8% of the respondents were categorized as opinion seekers with low body esteem, while 46.7% were categorized as opinion seekers with high body esteem. On the other hand, 49.2% of the respondents were categorized as opinion leaders with low body esteem, while 53.3% were categorized as opinion leaders with high body esteem. Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square.209 a Continuity Correction b Likelihood Ratio Exact Sig. (2- sided) Exact Sig. (1- sided) Fisher's Exact Test Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid Cases Table 20: Chi-Square Tests for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Body Esteem The results in Table 20 indicate that there is not a statistically significant relationship between opinion leadership and body esteem (χ 2 df=1=0.209, p=0.647). The effect size was also calculated for the two data sets and displayed in Table 21. The value of indicates a very small effect size for the difference between Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Body Esteem. 49

62 50 Nominal by Nominal Interval by Interval Ordinal by Ordinal Value Asymp. Std. Approx. Error a Approx. T b Sig. Phi Cramer's V Pearson's R c Spearman Correlation N of Valid Cases c Table 21: Effect size for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Body Esteem Because the high number of neutral respondents may have confounded the results, additional statistical tests were completed and analyzed with those who were more clearly fashion opinion leaders or seekers. In the following tests, the participants responding with neutral responses (34-38) on the Opinion Leadership Scale were omitted (i.e., those who responded Neutral on all but one or two Agree or Disagree responses). The first chi-square test examined differences in need for uniqueness (CNFU) between opinion leaders and opinion seekers that were not considered neutral. The results are displayed in Tables 22 and

63 51 Opinion Leadership/ Seeking Total 1 2 Need for Uniqueness 1 2 Total Count % within CNFU 21.9% 10.2% 14.8% Count % within CNFU 78.1% 89.8% 85.2% Count % within CNFU 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Table 22: Crosstabulation Between Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Need for Uniqueness Scores on the Opinion Leadership and Opinion Seeking Scale were recoded to omit neutral respondents. 1 represents scores between 12 and 33 and 2 represents scores between 39 and 60. As for the Consumer Need for Uniqueness scale, 1 represents scores between 31 and 90 and 2 represents scores between 91 and 155. As displayed in Table 22, 21.9% of the respondents were categorized as opinion seekers with a low need for uniqueness, while 10.2% were categorized as opinion seekers with a high need for uniqueness. On the other hand, 78.1% of the respondents were categorized as opinion leaders with a low need for uniqueness, while 89.8% were categorized as opinion leaders with a high need for uniqueness. 51

64 52 Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square a Continuity Correction b Likelihood Ratio Exact Sig. (2- sided) Exact Sig. (1- sided) Fisher's Exact Test Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid Cases Table 23: Chi-Square Tests for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Need for Uniqueness The results in Table 23 indicate that there was a statistically insignificant relationship between opinion leadership and consumer need for uniqueness (χ 2 df=1=2.089, p=0.148). The effect size was also calculated for the two data sets and displayed in Table 24. The value of indicates a small effect size for the difference between Opinion Leadership/Seeking for the variable of Need for Uniqueness. Value Approx. Sig. Nominal by Nominal Phi Cramer's V N of Valid Cases 81 Table 24: Effect size for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Need for Uniqueness The second chi-square test examined differences in self-esteem (SE) between opinion leaders and opinion seekers. The results are displayed in Tables 25 and

65 53 Opinion Leadership/ Seeking Total 1 2 Self-Esteem 1 2 Total Count % within SE 21.1% 10.9% 15.1% Count % within SE 78.9% 89.1% 84.9% Count % within SE 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Table 25: Crosstabulation between Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Self-Esteem Scores on the Self-Esteem scale were recoded using a median split. 1 represents scores between 10 and 39 and 2 represents scores between 40 and 50. As displayed in Table 25, 21.1% of the respondents were categorized as opinion seekers with low self-esteem, while 10.9% were categorized as opinion seekers with high self-esteem. On the other hand, 78.9% of the respondents were categorized as opinion leaders with low self-esteem, while 89.1% were categorized as opinion leaders with high self-esteem. Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Exact Sig. (2- sided) Exact Sig. (1- sided) Pearson Chi-Square a Continuity Correction b Likelihood Ratio Fisher's Exact Test Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid Cases Table 26: Chi-Square Tests for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Self-Esteem 53

66 54 The results in Table 26 indicate that there was not a statistically significant relationship between opinion leadership and self-esteem (χ 2 df=1=1.808, p=0.179). The effect size was also calculated for the two data sets and displayed in Table 27. The value of indicates a small effect size for the difference between Opinion Leadership/Seeking for the variable of Self-Esteem. Value Approx. Sig. Nominal by Nominal Phi Cramer's V N of Valid Cases 93 Table 27: Effect size for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Self-Esteem The third and final chi-square test examined participants responses on the Opinion Leadership and Opinion Seeking Scale with their responses on the Body Esteem Scale (BE). The results are displayed in Tables 28 and 29. Opinion Leadership/ Seeking Total 1 2 Body Esteem 1 2 Total Count % within BE 26.7% 4.8% 16.1% Count % within BE 73.3% 95.2% 83.9% Count % within BE 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Table 28: Crosstabulation between Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Body Esteem 54

67 55 Scores on the Body Esteem scale were recoded using a median split. 1 represents scores between 19 and 63 and 2 represents scores between 64 and 95. As displayed in Table 28, 26.7% of the respondents were categorized as opinion seekers with low body esteem, while 4.8% were categorized as opinion seekers with high body esteem. On the other hand, 73.3% of the respondents were categorized as opinion leaders with low body esteem, while 95.2% were categorized as opinion leaders with high body esteem. Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square a Continuity Correction b Likelihood Ratio Exact Sig. (2- sided) Exact Sig. (1- sided) Fisher's Exact Test Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid Cases Table 29: Chi-Square Tests for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Body Esteem The results in Table 29 indicate that there was a statistically significant relationship between opinion leadership and body esteem (χ 2 df=1=4.995, p=0.025). The effect size was also calculated for the two data sets and displayed in Table 30. The value of indicates a small effect size for the difference between Opinion Leadership/Seeking for the variable of Body Esteem. However, the effect size is larger than for the other two variables of Self-Esteem and Consumer Need for Uniqueness. 55

68 56 Value Approx. Sig. Nominal by Nominal Phi Cramer's V N of Valid Cases 87 Table 30: Effect size for Opinion Leadership/Seeking and Body Esteem Discussion The results of this study were somewhat unexpected and contradictory. Although the relationship between consumer need for uniqueness and fashion opinion leadership was confirmed, the relationships between body image, self-esteem, and fashion opinion leadership were insignificant. However, responses to the open-ended questions revealed that the majority of respondents believe that body image and self-esteem have a significant influence on their confidence in their appearance. Each research question and the one hypothesis are discussed individually, and overall conclusions are proposed. The first two research questions were tested using chi-square statistics to determine differences in levels of self-esteem and body image between the two groups of interest, opinion leaders and opinion seekers. In the first research question, Do fashion opinion leaders have higher self-esteem than fashion opinion seekers?, the difference was not significant. In the second research question, Do fashion opinion leaders have more positive body images than fashion opinion seekers?, the difference was also not significant. Although the results of the chi-square test showed some differences in the levels of self-esteem and body image between opinion leaders and opinion seekers, the differences were too small to be considered significant. 56

69 57 Furthermore, the single hypothesis stated that opinion leaders would have a higher need for uniqueness than opinion seekers. This hypothesis was tested using chi-square statistics and was discovered to be significant. Opinion leaders had a significantly higher need for uniqueness than opinion seekers. Therefore, this hypothesis was accepted for purposes of the study. The final two research questions, Are fashion opinion leaders more confident than fashion opinion seekers? and Do fashion opinion leaders engage in more appearance management behaviors than fashion opinion seekers?, were measured using four open-ended questions. The responses to these questions were analyzed and placed into thematic categories. The majority of the respondents felt that their self-esteem and body image had a strong effect on their confidence. Some responses included: It affects my confidence pretty strongly because if I feel good about what I am wearing and how I look, I don't worry about what others think, My confidfence [sic] has slowly risen with my rising self esteem and positive body image feelings. Now that I accept my body more, I feel more confident on what to put on it and defiantly [sic] what I shouldn't put on it, and It affects it a considerable amount. If I put on some weight I don't feel as comfortable in my form fitting clothing. It limits what I can wear. To me confidence is your level of self esteem. If you have a bad body image you will have low self esteem and therefore not feel confident in your appearance. However, the majority of the respondents spent two hours or less per day and less than $100 per month managing their appearances. This result is interesting because if one feels that her confidence level is greatly influenced by her self-esteem and, in particular, her body image, it is assumed 57

70 58 that she would devote a significant amount of time and money on managing her appearance. The results demonstrate that this assumption is not validated in this case. In addition, the measure of personal style revealed that many of the respondents identified most with the outfits that represented fashion leaders. Consequently, one might also assume that individuals deemed to be fashion leaders would spend more time and money engaging in appearance management behaviors. The results also do not support this assumption. Furthermore, the results of the personal style measure do not follow the bell curve proposed by Rogers in his analysis of the innovation diffusion process (Rogers, 2003). The results of the present study display a curve that is leftskewed towards fashion leaders. Omitting the neutral respondents displayed an interesting change to the previous results. In the initial chi-square tests reflecting all respondents, the only significant difference between opinion leaders and opinion seekers was represented by the variable of need for uniqueness. However, after omitting the neutral respondents and running the chi-square tests for a second time, need for uniqueness was no longer a significant variable. On the contrary, the differences between opinion leaders and opinion seekers were significant on the variable of body esteem. This shift in the results leads to the conclusion that need for uniqueness is important to neutral respondents, but body esteem becomes more significant when neutral responses are removed. The reason for this shift is unclear. Perhaps those who do not strongly identify as fashion opinion leaders or fashion opinion seekers rely on trying to feel unique in an effort to strengthen their selfidentification as a leader or seeker. However, for those who already strongly identify 58

71 59 themselves as a leader or seeker, attempting to exert uniqueness is no longer as important. Instead, these leaders and seekers are more affected by how they feel about their bodies and their weights. This result is confirmed by responses to the open-ended questions, where many respondents believed that their fashion confidence is affected by their body image level. These results need to be further examined in future research. Overall, it seems that companies need to focus on a variety of factors depending on the customer base they are targeting. For example, if targeting a more fashion opinion neutral customer base, companies should focus on products that are unique and allow the customer to express herself. On the other hand, if targeting those that self-identify as fashion opinion leaders or fashion opinion seekers, it may be more important for the company to create products that flatter a variety of body types to instill body esteem in the customer. 59

72 60 Chapter 5: Conclusions The objective of this study was to gain insight into the antecedents influencing an individual s self-identification as a fashion opinion leader or fashion opinion seeker. Previous research has shown a significant connection between fashion opinion leadership and consumer need for uniqueness; however, the influence of body image and selfesteem, mediating by confidence and appearance management behaviors, has not been examined prior to the present study (Bertrandias & Goldsmith, 2006; Goldsmith & Clark, 2008). Analysis revealed that body image and self-esteem did not have a significant influence on fashion opinion leadership. This result indicates that identification as a fashion opinion leader or fashion opinion seeker may be independent of one s level of self-esteem and body image. As speculated previously, those with high self-esteem or a positive body image are most likely also confident, which they may choose to display in their fashion choices. On the other hand, those with low self-esteem or a negative body image may use fashion as a way to feel better about themselves. Consequently, this disparity may be the reason that the differences were so slight in the levels of self-esteem and body image between the opinion leaders and opinion seekers. However, results confirmed the influence of consumer need for uniqueness on fashion opinion leadership. Thus, those who scored highly on the consumer need for 60

73 61 uniqueness scale were more likely to score highly on items measuring fashion opinion leadership. This result is not surprising since similar results have been demonstrated in previous studies of antecedents to fashion opinion leadership (Bertrandias & Goldsmith, 2006; Goldsmith & Clark, 2008). In addition, analysis of the open-ended questions measuring the influence of confidence and appearance management behaviors on fashion opinion leadership revealed that the majority of respondents believed that their level of self-esteem and body image affected their confidence. On the other hand, the majority of respondents spent less than 2 hours/day and less than $100/month to manage their appearances. This result is puzzling because one would expect the respondents to spend more time and money on their appearances if they believe their confidence is greatly influenced by their body image and self-esteem. As indicated by the results of the current study, fashion opinion leaders do not necessarily have high rather than low self-esteem or positive rather than negative body images. However, the desire to be unique and different, as measured by the Consumer Need for Uniqueness Scale, was an important factor in identification as a fashion opinion leader. Consequently, this desire for distinctiveness may transcend an individual s level of self-esteem or body image. This proposition is based on the fact that the only variable that produced a significant result was need for uniqueness when analyzed with fashion opinion leadership. In the following sections, the implications of the research will be considered, limitations will be discussed, and suggestions for future research will be provided. 61

74 62 Limitations Several limitations exist in the study, most notably the sample size. Time and financial constraints prevented the collection of a larger sample size. Consequently, due to the small sample size, the results of the study cannot be generalized across a larger population. In addition, the majority of the women in the study identified themselves as Caucasian, which makes it difficult to generalize the results of the study to non- Caucasian women. The fact that the sample was restricted to college students also affects the generalizability of the results. Age can affect an individual s self-esteem and body image because of the emphasis on youth and appearance in Western society. However, females that are college-aged or older may be more immune to the pressures of society than younger females, such as pre-teens and teens. Furthermore, the sample was a convenience sample, which also prevents the results from being generalized across populations. Another limitation concerns the reliance on self-reported measures. Participants may have felt uncomfortable responding openly to certain questions on the questionnaire. For instance, some questions dealt with issues related to how participants felt about their bodies, their levels of self-worth, and their levels of confidence. This may have resulted in incomplete data, making the sample size smaller and the results less generalizable. Additionally, some participants completed an online version of the questionnaire, while others completed a paper version of the questionnaire, which could present limitations. For example, the online version of the questionnaire utilized color photographs in the measure of personal style, while the paper version utilized black and white photographs. 62

75 63 Respondent fatigue is a third limitation. The amount of participants failing to respond to items increased with each scale, most often those completing the online version of the questionnaire. For example, on the first scale, which measured opinion leadership, the number of participants that completed the scale was 153. In contrast, the number of participants that completed the final scale, which measured need for uniqueness, was only 116. However, participants completing at least one scale were included in the analysis. A future questionnaire may test which items in each scale are most effective and reliable in measuring each construct in an effort to decrease the number of items. Additionally, some respondents completed an online version of the questionnaire and others completed a paper version of the questionnaire, which likely had an effect on response rates. Implications The concept of fashion opinion leadership is essential when trying to interpret fashion cycles and trends. Most importantly, what characteristics influence an individual s propensity toward becoming a fashion opinion leader? Discovering these traits could greatly benefit the way retail companies advertise and market their products to consumers. The results from the current study propose several marketing implications. Based on desire for need for uniqueness, companies that lack a strong brand identity may benefit from refining their image to attract consumers that desire to express themselves in a way that is similar to the company s image. Obviously, these endeavors would likely 63

76 64 be costly for retailers, but the potential gains may outweigh the costs. Furthermore, with the current state of the economy, it might prove beneficial for companies to utilize new strategies in an effort to attract more customers. Based on comments on the confidence and appearance management behavior questions, it is important for retailers to create fashions that fit a variety of body types and allow women the opportunity to express their personalities through their fashion choices. Some of these comments included: Although I am not the best looking girl, I feel confident expressing myself through appearance. Because I feel what I look like is as near an honest representation of my personality, I feel confident in my appearance and fashion choices and I have grown and been through many different stages in my life. I continue to grow and change and right now I am still experimenting with different fashions. Companies utilizing a small range of sizes could potentially increase their sales by offering a larger variety of sizes to flatter a variety of body types. Additionally, the current study contributes to literature regarding fashion opinion leadership, consumer need for uniqueness, self-esteem, and body image. The influence of body image and self-esteem is absent in the fashion opinion leadership literature. Therefore, though results of the current study indicated that the influence is insignificant, the results provide further evidence of the characteristics that do and do not have an influence on fashion opinion leadership. With regards to self-esteem, differences in the participants levels of self-esteem did not produce significant results when analyzed with fashion opinion leadership. Similarly, whether a participant obtained a positive body image score or negative body image score on the Body Esteem Scale did not have a 64

77 65 statistically significant result when analyzed with fashion opinion leadership using chisquare statistics. On the other hand, the results further validated the influence of consumer need for uniqueness on fashion opinion leadership shown in previous studies using a different sample, females enrolled in an undergraduate Textiles & Clothing program (Bertrandias & Goldsmith, 2006; Goldsmith & Clark, 2008). Future Research Upon completing the study, one recommendation for future studies would be to replicate the study using a sample that has more variation with regard to age, ethnic background, and program of study. It is believed that older women have higher levels of self-esteem and more positive body images than younger women, so it would interesting to complete the same experiment using girls in grade school or high school. Also, differences in levels of self-esteem and body image between various ethnic groups would also be beneficial. For example, a European sample could be utilized and compared with the sample from the United States. In addition, a sample from another part of the United States or from a different type of school, such as a small liberal arts college, could be compared with the sample of Textiles & Clothing students at this major research institution. Another suggestion for a future study would be to test for relationships between participants responses on the standardized scales and their responses to the open-ended questions. The current study only grouped the responses to the open-ended questions into thematic categories, so it would be interesting to complete further statistical testing to 65

78 66 investigate potential relationships. For example, each theme in Question 1b., which focused on factors that have helped the participants determine their level of confidence, could be recoded and analyzed with participants scores on the Opinion Leader and Opinion Seeker Scale to determine differences in responses to the open-ended questions between opinion leaders and opinion seekers. These additional statistical tests would help to determine whether or not confidence and appearance management are actually mediating variables between self-esteem, body image, and opinion leadership, as proposed in the conceptual framework in Chapter 1. Finally, further research should continue to examine various constructs to discover potential influences on fashion opinion leadership. The current study did not find a significant differences in levels of self-esteem and body image between opinion leaders and opinion seekers using the validated scales; however, responses to the openended questions showed that participants believed that self-esteem and body image affected their confidence in their appearances and the amount of time and money they chose to dedicate to managing their appearances. In the future, different standardized measurements for self-esteem and body image might be utilized to further test their influence on fashion opinion leadership. The Body Esteem Scale and Rosenberg s Self- Esteem Scale, the standardized instruments used in the present study, may not have targeted the body image and self-esteem levels of the participants as efficiently as the open-ended questions. Therefore, perhaps a study utilizing a qualitative based approach with focus groups and more open-ended questions would produce more significant results. 66

79 67 Another possible modification to the present study would involve the use of different measures of body image and self-esteem. For example, the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (Brown, Cash, & Mikulka, 1990), which includes specific subscales such as Appearance Evaluation, Appearance Orientation, Overweight Preoccupation, Self-Classified Weight, and the Body Areas Satisfaction Scale, could be utilized to measure a different aspect of the participants body images. With regard to self-esteem, a potential alternative scale could be the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (Coopersmith, 1981), which assesses not only general attitudes towards oneself, but also self-esteem in contexts involving peers, parents, school, and personal interests. Measuring these different aspects of body image and self-esteem may produce further insight into participants attitudes towards themselves, which may lead to more significant results. Additionally, scales measuring other potential antecedents to opinion leadership should also be explored. One example would be a scale measuring identity achievement, which proposes that an individual s sense of identity is greatly affected by the choices and commitments he or she makes regarding certain personal and social traits (Marcia, 1966). Overall, the results of the study did not demonstrate significant differences in opinion leadership and opinion seeking with regard to self-esteem and body image. However, based on participants responses to the open-ended questions, self-esteem and body image do play an important role in attitudes towards appearance and clothing choices. Therefore, it is vital for appearance-based industries to take into consideration the role of their customers self-esteem, body image, and need for uniqueness when 67

80 68 designing and marketing their products. For example, clothing companies should realize that their customers represent a wide variety of shapes and sizes, and attempt to design their products to cater to their diverse clientele. One company who recently extended the size range of their clothing is Forever 21. Their new line, Faith 21, includes fashionable clothing in sizes XL, 1X, and 2X. Ideally, other companies will take notice of the benefits of expanding their products to include a larger customer base. The results of this study provide evidence that this area of research will continue to be a rich topic of inquiry. 68

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88 76 Appendix A: Opinion Leadership/Opinion Seeking Please read each of the following items and circle the number that best reflects your agreement with the statement. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree I often persuade other people to buy the fashion that I like. Other people rarely come to me for advice about choosing fashion. People that I know pick their fashions based on what I have told them. My opinion of fashion seems not to count with other people. I often influence people s opinions about fashion. When they choose fashionable clothing, other people do not turn to me for advice. When I consider new fashions, I ask other people for advice. I don t need to talk to others before I buy a clothing item. I like to get others opinions before I buy a new fashion item. I rarely ask other people about what clothes to buy. I feel more comfortable choosing clothing items when I have gotten other people s opinions on them. When choosing fashionable clothing, other peoples opinions are not important to me

89 77 Appendix B: Consumer Need For Uniqueness Please read each of the following items and circle the number that best reflects your agreement with the statement. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree I collect unusual products as a way of telling people I'm different. 2. I have sometimes purchased unusual products or brands as a way to create a more distinctive personal image. 3. I often look for one-of-a-kind products or brands so that I create a style that is all my own. 4. Often when buying merchandise, an important goal is to find something that communicates my uniqueness. 5. I often combine possessions in such a way that I create a personal image for myself that can't be duplicated. 6. I often try to find a more interesting version of run-of-the-mill products because I enjoy being original. 7. I actively seek to develop my personal uniqueness by buying special products or brands. 8. Having an eye for products that are interesting and unusual assists me in establishing a distinctive image. 77

90 78 9. The products and brands that I like best are the ones that express my individuality. 10. I often think of the things I buy and do in terms of how I can use them to shape a more unusual personal image. 11. I'm often on the lookout for new products or brands that will add to my personal uniqueness. 12. When dressing, I have sometimes dared to be different in ways that others are likely to disapprove. 13. As far as I'm concerned, when it comes to the products I buy and the situations in which I use them, customs and rules are made to be broken. 14. I often dress unconventionally even when it's likely to offend others. 15. I rarely act in agreement with what others think are the right things to buy. 16. Concern for being out of place doesn't prevent me from wearing what I want to wear. 17. I have often violated the understood rules of my social group regarding what to buy or own. 20. I enjoy challenging the prevailing taste of people I know by buying something they wouldn't seem to accept. 21. When I dress differently, I'm often aware that others think I'm peculiar, but I don't care. 22. When products or brands I like become extremely popular, I lose interest in them. 78

91 I avoid products or brands that have already been accepted and purchased by the average consumer. 24. I often try to avoid products or brands that I know are bought by the general population. 25. I give up wearing fashions I've purchased once they become popular among the general public. 79

92 80 Appendix C: Self-Esteem Scale Please read each of the following items and circle the number that best reflects your agreement with the statement. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. 2.* At times, I think I am no good at all. 3. I feel that I have a number of good qualities. 4. I am able to do things as well as most other people. 5.* I feel I do not have much to be proud of. 6.* I certainly feel useless at times. 7. I feel that I m a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others. 8.* I wish I could have more respect for myself. 9.* All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure. 10. I take a positive attitude toward myself. Scoring: CA=4, SA=3, N=2, SD=1, CD=0. Items with an asterisk are reverse scored, that is, CA=0, SA=1, N=2, SD=3, CD=4. Sum the scores for the 10 items. The higher the score, the higher the self-esteem. 80

93 81 Appendix D: Body Esteem Scale Please read each of the following items and circle the number that best reflects your agreement with the statement. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree I am preoccupied with trying to change my body weight. 2. I think my appearance would help me get a job. 3. I like what I see when I look in the mirror. 4. There are lots of things I would change about my looks if I could. 5. I am satisfied with my weight. 6. I wish I looked better. 7. I really like what I weigh. 8. I wish I looked like someone else. 9. People my own age like my looks. 10. My looks upset me. 11. I m as nice looking as most people. 12. I m pretty happy with the way I look. 13. I feel I weigh the right amount for my height. 14. I feel ashamed of how I look. 15. Weighing myself depresses me. 81

94 My looks help me to get dates. 17. I worry about the way I look. 18. I think I have a nice body. 19. I m as nice looking as I d like to be. 82

95 83 Appendix E: Open-Ended Questions Please answer the following questions as truthfully and thoroughly as possible. 1. How confident on a scale of 1-5 (1=not confident, 5=very confident) are you in your appearance and fashion choices? What factors have helped you to determine your level of confidence? 2. How strongly does your body image and self-esteem affect your level of confidence? 3. Approximately how many hours per day do you spend managing your appearance (i.e., choosing an outfit, applying cosmetics, styling hair, etc.)? 4. Approximately how much money do you spend per month on products to manage your appearance (i.e., clothing, cosmetics, hair products/services, etc.)? 83

96 84 Appendix F: Personal Style Measure Please select from the following photographs the two outfits that most closely reflect your personal style. 84

97 85 85

98 86 Appendix G: Demographic Information Please provide the following information, which will be used for statistical purposes only and remain confidential. 1. Age: 2. Level of education (please choose one) College freshman College sophomore College junior College senior Other (please specify) 3. Ethnic background (please choose one) Caucasian African-American Asian or Pacific Islander Hispanic Other (please specify) 86

99 87 Appendix H: IRB Approval Form 87