The Sources of Stress Experienced by Professional Australian Footballers

Transcription

1 JOURNAL OF APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY, 14: 1 13, 2002 Copyright 2002 by the Association for Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology /02 $ SOURCES OF STRESS FOR PROFESSIONAL FOOTBALLERS 1 The Sources of Stress Experienced by Professional Australian Footballers ANDREW J. NOBLET AND SANDRA M. GIFFORD Deakin University Previous studies looking at the sources of stress in sport have generally overlooked the unique experiences of professional athletes participating in team sports. This paper describes the results of a qualitative study aimed at identifying the sources of stress experienced by a crosssection of professional Australian footballers. Players from two Australian Football League clubs took part in the study involving in-depth, one-to-one interviews and focus group discussions. The results revealed that players identified sources of stress that went beyond those associated with the competitive event (such as poor performances) and included a lack of feedback, difficulty balancing football and study commitments, and job insecurity. The influence of both competition and non-competition sources of stress parallels previous research involving non-professional athletes and indicates that the entire sporting experience needs to be taken into account when developing stress management strategies. Ken Hunter, an ex-professional Australian footballer, recently spoke about the severe social and psychological effects associated with playing the game at the highest level. In mid- 1988, after playing in three premiership teams, Ken was relegated to the reserves team for the first time in his career. Unable to regain a permanent position in the senior team, Hunter s physical and emotional health began to suffer: I was training harder and harder to try and exhaust myself... doing ridiculous things to my body. On Sundays I would drink to try and drown my sorrows and get to sleep, thinking that if I just got a good sleep it would be fine (Wilson, 1999, p. 1). Soon after the season had ended, Ken was admitted to hospital suffering from physical and mental exhaustion. The club and the player originally intended keeping the story a secret. However, a decade later Hunter himself decided to speak publicly on the matter. His rationale was that little is known about a profession that can be as stressful as it is rewarding. Many stories like Ken s have emerged over the past five years and indicate that stress among professional Australian footballers is a serious issue. While a number of ex-players, current players and coaches have expressed concern regarding the well-being of professional Received 25 October 2000; accepted 10 June This research was supported by a seeding grant from the School of Health Sciences, Deakin University, Australia. We are grateful to the clubs and the players who gave their time to participate in this investigation. We are also appreciative of the feedback provided by Andrew Dawson and the anonymous reviewers who provided valuable comments on earlier versions of this paper. Address correspondence to Andrew Noblet, School of Health Sciences, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood Victoria 3125, Australia. anoblet@ deakin.edu.au 1

2 2 A. J. NOBLET AND S. M. GIFFORD Australian footballers, little is known about the sources of this stress, the impact these have on player well-being, and the strategies for preventing and/or reducing the ill effects. An extensive search of the stress in sport literature has revealed that professional athletes participating in other team sports such as soccer, basketball, or baseball are also under-represented in previous research. The aim of this paper is to address this imbalance by identifying the sources of stress experienced by professional Australian footballers. A large portion of the stress in sport studies has focused on competition-induced stress. This includes the stress experienced by athletes prior to (e.g., Feltz, Lirgg, & Albrecht, 1992; Gould & Weinberg, 1985; Kroll, 1980), during (e.g., Jones & Hardy, 1990; Madden et al., 1995), or immediately following competition (Pargman, 1986). However, the competitive experience is only a fraction of the overall sporting experience. Other aspects of an athlete s sporting life, such as training, rehabilitation, team meetings, contract negotiations, and player transfers need to be also considered when investigating the sources of stress. There are a growing number of studies that have examined the overall sporting experience (Cohn, 1990; Gould, Jackson, & Finch, 1993; Scanlan, Stein, & Ravizza, 1991). These studies have identified a wide range of sources of stress that extend well beyond the competitive event. For example, the sources of stress identified by Scanlan et al. included worries about performing poorly, interpersonal conflict, balancing skating and study commitments, limited financial resources, and family disturbances. Despite the breadth of situations and conditions reflected in these studies, a key limitation is that they have only focused on two sports: figure skating and golf (Gould et al., 1993). Given that the entire sport studies have investigated the stress experienced by non-professional athletes involved in single (i.e., golf) and dual-actor (i.e., figure skating) sports, there is a clear need to identify the sources of stress experienced professional athletes participating in team sports. Intuitively, there would be a number of stressful situations that are readily encountered by professional footballers or basketballers that are not represented in the previous studies involving high-school golfers and elite figure skaters. Player transfers, contract disputes, long-distance relocation, and fear of job loss are just some of the stressors that are likely to be experienced professional athletes participating in team sports that have not been identified in the earlier studies. A failure to consider these broader sources of stress could have significant implications. The general occupational stress literature indicates that job stress can contribute to a wide range of physical (e.g., sleep deprivation), psychological (e.g., depression), social (e.g., interpersonal conflict), and behavioral (e.g., alcohol and other drug abuse) health problems (Kalimo & Mejman, 1987; Levi, 1996). At the same time, research involving athletic populations has shown that the stress experienced by athletes can increase the likelihood of injury (e.g., Blackwell & McCullagh, 1990) and impede optimal performance (e.g., Burton, 1988). Without a comprehensive understanding of the factors that contribute to stress in sport, there is therefore a risk that stress management strategies will overlook situations or conditions that are particularly damaging to player well-being and athletic performance (Sparks & Cooper, 1999). The present study aimed to address the lack of knowledge about professional athletes involved in team sports by identifying the sources of stress experienced by a sample of professional Australian footballers participating in the Australian Football League (AFL). Although the primary aim of this study was to identify those situations and events that are considered stressful by members of this athletic group, the study will also build on and extend previous stress in sport research (e.g., Gould & Weinberg, 1985; Scanlan et al., 1991). When considered together, this overall body of research will provide a more comprehensive insight into the range of competition and non-competition sources of stress experienced by all elite athletes, irrespective of the sport they play or their professional status. The AFL is the most elite Australian football league involving 736 registered players spread

3 SOURCES OF STRESS FOR PROFESSIONAL FOOTBALLERS 3 across 16 clubs and located in five Australian states (AFLPA, 1999). Each club consists of a list of 40 players (plus six supplementary players) who compete in senior and reserve-grade competitions. The competitive season consists of 22 home-and-away matches, four pre-season competition matches, and approximately five trial games. During this period players will spend up to 30 hours per week at the club (Shanahan, 1998). In addition to their considerable football commitments, AFL footballers are also encouraged to undertake part-time study or find part-time employment and thus prepare themselves for life after football. However, football is still considered the number one priority and all players, regardless of whether they are a club captain or a first-year recruit, are expected to be totally committed to their football careers (Ryan, 1999). The average salary of an AFL footballer is two-and-a-half times the average Australian income (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1999) and although this may appear very lucrative, the large wage-packet is likely to be short-lived. The career-span of a professional Australian footballer is 41 games (i.e., approximately two years; Andrew Demetriou, AFLPA; personal communication, May 6, 1999) and player turnover among AFL clubs is high. Consistent with the hierarchy of organized sport, the chances of failure at this level are many times greater than the chances of success (Messner, 1992). Participants METHOD Thirty-two footballers from two AFL clubs participated in this study. Fourteen (44%) had played between 0 and 25 senior games, 7 (21%) had played between 26 and 50 games, 5 (16%) had played between 51 and 100 games and the remaining 6 (19%) had played in excess of 101 senior matches. This sample may appear to be heavily biased towards less experienced players. However, data describing the demographic profile of AFL footballers indicates that 59% of players have played less than 51 senior games (Cameron Sinclair, Statistics & Media Department, AFL; personal communication, April 5, 2001). Participants were selected using the purposeful sampling technique, maximum variation sampling (Patton, 1990). This sampling technique was appropriate because the goal of the study was to uncover and describe the full range of sources of stress experienced by AFL footballers. Prior discussions with the AFL Players Association (Andrew Demetriou, personal communication, August 24, 1999) indicated that there would be a core of stressors that would be experienced by players from all clubs. However, the Players Association also believed that the influence of some sources of stress would vary according to the number of senior games played. It was expected that younger, inexperienced players who were unfamiliar with the demands of professional football would perceive their environment differently to more experienced players who had spent four-six years becoming accustomed to the physical and psychological pressures associated with playing AFL football. The criterion for selecting players (i.e., number of games played) was given to the manager of the football department at each club. The manager was then instructed to identify players who met this criterion. Players selected to take part in the study were sent an invitation outlining the objectives of the study, the nature of the interview questions, how the information would be used and steps taken to protect confidentiality. All players contacted agreed to take part in the study. Design A qualitative research design consisting of semi-structured interviews and focus groups has been adopted in the present study to help maximize the range of stressors that can be expressed

4 4 A. J. NOBLET AND S. M. GIFFORD by participants. The qualitative approach has previously been employed at the beginning of a research process when key constructs and variables are yet to be defined (Gifford, 1998b; Holmes & Gifford, 1997). The use of focus groups represents a major departure from the common methodological approaches used in the previous qualitative studies investigating stress and the entire sporting experience (Cohn, 1990; Gould et al., 1993). Most qualitative studies examining stress in sport have only used one method to elicit the data and this has been openended, semi-structured interviews with individual athletes. In the present study, the design rigor has been enhanced by employing method triangulation (Patton, 1990). Two different methods of eliciting experiences of work and stress have been utilized: focus group discussions and individual, in-depth interviews. Each of these methods provides different perspectives on experiences of stress. The focus group discussions are noted for their ability to facilitate interaction between participants and to elicit group norms (Murphy, Cockburn, & Murphy, 1992). Conversely, the individual interview is recognized for its ability to elicit more personal experiences that would not be easily shared within a group situation (Bernard, 1988). While focus group discussions and in-depth interviews often provide different perspectives about a given topic, the results of the present study revealed that the views expressed individually and in the groups did not differ significantly. In part, this overlap may be because players shared a core of common experiences and the issues identified in individual interviews were not sensitive enough to prevent disclosure and discussion in a larger group. There were instances where players felt that the stressful situations experienced by others were not as relevant to them. However, none of these instances represented negative cases and there was generally a high degree of consistency in the data collected (Lewis & Lewis, 1980). What the focus groups did highlight was the different ways in which players experienced the same sources of stress while individual interviews provided more in-depth insights into the nature of these experiences. In view of the close similarities in the sources of stress revealed in the interviews and focus groups, the data collected via these two methods will be presented together. This approach to presenting qualitative data is not uncommon and has been adopted in a number of studies employing interviews and focus groups (e.g., Bakopanos & Gifford, 2001; Thompson & Gifford, 2000). Procedure Eight in-depth interviews and four focus groups were conducted to gain a detailed insight into the sources of stress experienced by participants. The investigation began with four players from each club participating in the one-to-one interviews. With the participants consent, these were recorded on audiotape and later transcribed. The individual interviews were then followed by the focus groups. Two focus groups were conducted at each club and each group consisted of 6 participants with varying levels of playing experience. Like the one-to-one interviews, each focus group was tape-recorded and later transcribed. Each interview and focus group started with an introductory section that provided an overview of the study and described the types of questions that would be posed. The questions on the sources of stress were prefaced by a definition of the term stress. Stress was defined as times when you feel angry, excessively worried, upset, or depressed. These feelings may be accompanied by self-doubt and generally negative thoughts about yourself and others (adapted from Cohn, 1990). Participants were then asked to identify the sources of stress they experience in their job as an AFL footballer. The specific question posed to participants was: As a footballer, what situations, events, or issues cause you to become stressed? A series of general probes were used to encourage players to reflect broadly on their experiences. For example, probes were directed towards eliciting information relating to factors outside the football club, such as study or relationship commitments, that might contribute to stress. Players

5 SOURCES OF STRESS FOR PROFESSIONAL FOOTBALLERS 5 were also asked to consider all stages of the football calendar and not to focus solely on their most recent experiences. Finally, specific elaboration probes were used to ensure players provided detailed, unambiguous descriptions of the source of stress identified (Bernard, 1988). The interviews and focus groups were undertaken by one of the authors who had considerable expertise in qualitative research. Although the author had employed these methods in conventional occupational settings (e.g., manufacturing sites and schools), he had no prior experience in working with professional Australian footballers. To ensure that the terminology and the probing procedures were appropriate to this population, the interviews and focus groups were pilot tested with players from an AFL club that was not involved in the main study. The piloting process did not result in major changes to the key question or the probing procedures. However, the pilot tests did give the facilitator the opportunity to clarify unfamiliar terms (e.g., delistment), tasks (e.g., promotional obligations), and systems (e.g., induction programs) and establish a facilitation style that was more appropriate to AFL footballers. All data was collected in the pre-season conditioning period prior to the 1999 season. Analyses A combination of thematic and content analysis methods was used to analyze the interview and focus group transcripts (Gifford, 1998a). This process began by examining the verbatim transcriptions and identifying quotes that represent a single, recognizable aspect of the participants experiences (Scanlan et al., 1991). Through inductive content analysis, the quotes were categorized into sources; an abbreviated summary of the quote. In turn, sources that related to a common topic were classified into a higher-order group called categories. Finally, the categories were examined and those that related to similar themes were grouped together and given the title themes. While the categories and themes emerged from the data themselves, their construction was influenced by the terminology used in the Scanlan et al. (1991) study and the broader occupational stress literature (Cooper & Marshall, 1976; Cox & Cox, 1993). This further enhances the rigor of analysis through what is commonly referred to as theoretical triangulation (Patton, 1990). The reliability and validity of the data analysis was assessed using three techniques. Firstly, to ensure that the criteria for classifying the data at the different levels was applied consistently, an independent reviewer classified randomly selected sources into categories and, in turn, randomly selected categories into themes (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Where large inconsistencies were found between the researcher and the independent reviewer, the data was to be reanalyzed. There was a 12% variation between the researcher and the reviewer and, hence, a reanalysis was not necessary. Secondly, the confirmability of the data analysis and interpretation was checked using member validation (Mays & Pope, 2000). The final analysis and summary of major findings was presented to 12 player delegates from the AFL Players Association. Each player represented a different club and they judged the common sources of stress and the overall analysis to be consistent with their perceptions and experiences of occupational stress. Thirdly, the external validity of the findings was assessed by comparing the results with similar studies involving elite athletes (e.g., Gould et al., 1993; Scanlan et al., 1991). There were many parallels with these studies (see Discussion), thus indicating that the findings have a good level of external validity. RESULTS The analysis of the interview and focus group transcripts identified 77 different sources of stress. The sources were then grouped into 16 categories of stressors. In turn, the stressor

6 6 A. J. NOBLET AND S. M. GIFFORD Table 1 Themes, Categories of Stressors and Sources of Stress Experienced by a Sample of AFL Footballers Theme Category Source of stress Negative aspects Poor communication lack of feedback x5 of organizational being ignored if you are playing poorly x3 systems and culture being told what you want to hear x2 focus on negative feedback x2 finding out through the media that you have been dropped x2 false promises x1 not knowing what you have done wrong x1 not listening to concerns x1 being ignored if injured x1 Low participation in decision making Negative cultural norms autocratic leadership x5 fickle environment x3 pressure to conform to club image x3 better players get preferential treatment x2 fear of being seen as weak x2 conservative leadership styles x1 Worries about Negative aspects of constant pressure to perform x6 performance performance inconsistent application of performance expectations x5 expectations and expectations high performance expectations x5 standards worrying about whether you re good enough x5 feeling like you are not meeting performance expectations x3 seriousness of AFL x1 fear of not making it x1 Negative aspects of actual performance Performance uncertainty poor form x11 team losing x2 performance ambiguity x2 selection uncertainty x1 not knowing how coaching staff rate you as a player x1 Career Uncertain football job insecurity x9 development future short time-span to prove worth x1 concerns making transition from under-age to elite competition x1 Post-football undertainty career uncertainty x7 pay not commensurate with demands/sacrifices x3 reduced life/personal development experiences x1 Negative aspects Negative aspects abusive criticism from coach x6 of interpersonal of relationships coach difficult to approach x5 relationships with coaching lack of support when playing poorly x2 staff interpersonal conflict with coach x1 Negative aspects of relationships with support staff unfair treatment from fitness staff x1 arrogant fitness staff x1 people talking about you behind your back x1 not trusting psychologist x1 Table continued on next page.

7 SOURCES OF STRESS FOR PROFESSIONAL FOOTBALLERS 7 Table 1 Continued Theme Category Source of stress Negative aspects of relationships with other players Negative aspects of relationships with supporters, sponsors, media not feeling a part of the group x7 intimidated by older players x3 lack of trust x3 other players not pulling their weight x2 spending too much time with other players x2 being ignored by older players x1 conflict with other players x1 cliques between players x1 constant public scrutiny x5 dealing with abusive supporters x3 undue criticism from media x2 criticism from sponsors/supporters x2 lack of understanding of commitment required x1 always having to be nice to supporters x1 rumours about personal life x1 Demanding Job content long training sessions x6 nature of work concerns regimented lifestyle x4 itself lack of training variety x3 inflexible work hours x3 demanding off-field obligations x3 representing the club all the time x2 lack of opportunities to play senior football x2 excessive endurance training x1 hot training conditions x1 facing the league s disciplinary tribunal x1 Injuries feeling left out when injured x4 the injury itself x3 threat of injury x2 feeling like you are falling behind in fitness x2 injury set-backs x1 Problems Relocation accommodation problems x5 associated with concerns missing family and friends x4 the work/non- adjusting to independent living x3 work interface adapting to city life x1 Work/non-work conflict difficulty balancing work and other job or study x11 conflicting demands of work and personal relationships x4 categories were grouped into 6 themes. The six themes were: (a) negative aspects of organizational systems and culture, (b) worries about performance expectations and standards, (c) career development concerns, (d) negative aspects of interpersonal relationships, (e) demanding nature of work itself, and (f) problems associated with the work/non-work interface. Table 1 provides a complete listing of the themes, categories of stressors, and sources of stress that were identified in the analysis. This table also includes the number of times each source of stress was identified in the transcripts. The frequencies were included to provide a general indication of the breadth of feeling relating to each source of stress. It is beyond the scope of this paper to elaborate on all 77 sources of stress, therefore, only the most commonly cited sources of stress in each category are discussed. Categories where the most commonly cited source of stress was mentioned less than three times will not be discussed.

8 8 A. J. NOBLET AND S. M. GIFFORD Negative Aspects of Organizational Systems and Culture This theme refers to aspects of the organizational and cultural environments that were perceived by participants as being stressful. In terms of poor communication, the majority of concerns related to systemic rather than one-to-one communication problems. The systemic communication problem that was cited the most frequently was a lack of feedback. A lack of feedback, in this context, refers to inadequate information regarding how participants were performing overall as well as periods when players felt that they did not get enough specific feedback. An example of a lack of overall feedback is reflected in the following comment: Sometimes they (coaching staff) just, are not real good at giving you a heap of feedback that you really want. Like they really know what you want to hear, but a lot of the time you may not talk to the coaching staff for a long period of time and you really don t know how you should be going. The second category of stressors within this theme was low participation in decision making. Several participants indicated that autocratic leadership was a source of stress, with one player using the analogy of the teacher pupil relationship to describe the authoritarian management practices adopted by some coaching staff: The best way to equate it is, you are treated like school children. You are grown men and you are making good money, and yet you are so vulnerable to what one or two people might say.... And then, you don t want to be here when you are getting told what to do, and you just want to tune out. You are unhappy with what may be a dictatorship which exists. Worries About Performance Expectations and Standards The second theme refers to worries or concerns participants had regarding the standard of competitive performance they were expected to achieve and whether they could meet these standards. The most common source of stress that was identified in the first category, negative aspects of performance expectations, was constant pressure to perform. The importance of performance in AFL football and the pressure this creates is reflected in the following comment, performance is critical in everything. The club is looking to you to play every game that year and play well and if you don t play well, you could be looking at the door. The second category, negative aspects of actual performance, contained one of the two most frequently cited sources of stress in the transcripts: poor form. This source of stress refers to periods when participants were not performing to the standard expected. Like constant pressure to perform, this stressor reflects the intense competition that exists within and between AFL clubs and the need for players to consistently achieve high levels of performance. Although the emotional strain associated with poor form could be regarded as an inevitable hazard of elite sport, there were indications that this strain was exacerbated by the perceived level of support players received when experiencing a performance slump. According to one player, the coaching staff don t talk to you at all if you are going through a bad patch. Even if they just said hello to you... it is simple as that. It happened to me a couple of years ago. All they had to do was say, gidday (player), how are you going? Simple as that. Career Development Concerns Concerns about career development were reflected in the worries participants had regarding their employment prospects both during and beyond their football careers. The theme

9 SOURCES OF STRESS FOR PROFESSIONAL FOOTBALLERS 9 comprised of two categories of stressors. The first, uncertain football future, related to concerns participants expressed regarding their future in football. Of the sources of stress identified in this category, job insecurity was by far the most common. One player spoke of the difficulties that job insecurity caused some interstate players, I live with a bloke from Western Australia. He s not signed up he s only 20 and he s stressing out at the moment. He s made the big move over and if they don t sign him up, what has he got? The second category consisted of sources of stress pertaining to participants lives after football and the most commonly cited source was career uncertainty. A number of participants expressed fear about what they would do after they finished playing AFL football. This fear stemmed from the difficulty these participants had pursuing non-football employment and educational opportunities. According to one participant, the major barrier to footballers having a career outside football was a lack of time, Football has increasingly become full-time and you don t get a chance to study or get experience outside of football. And if you do finish football without any job, what do you do? It is huge it stresses me mentally. Negative Aspects of Interpersonal Relationships Negative aspects of interpersonal relationships refers to concerns participants had regarding their relationships with other people at the club and in the wider football community. The category, negative aspects of relationships with coaching staff, included receiving abusive criticism from the coaching staff and finding the coach difficult to approach. In the case of the first source of stress, this included receiving verbal abuse, sarcastic remarks and angry, unwarranted criticism. Negative aspects of relationships with other players included a number of sources of stress, the most common being not feeling a part of the group. Younger participants appeared to be much more likely to experience this source of stress: A lot of guys come down and train and go back home and never really feel a part of it.... I first came down about seven years ago and I only now really feel a part of it. It is my club sort of thing. But I really didn t feel that until I played games in the seniors. The most prominent source of stress in the final category in this theme, negative aspects of relationships with supporters, sponsors, and the media, was constant public scrutiny. A number of participants discussed the difficulties associated with being a high-profile member of the community: The attention you get in your day-to-day life is what I find most stressful. Like if you just go out to a café to have something to eat, by yourself, or with a couple of friends, people look at you.... I can put up with it most of the time. It is just sometimes, it becomes a bit much. Demanding Nature of Work Itself Where the first theme, organizational structure, systems, and culture, referred to the social and organizational context that professional footballers work in, this theme refers to the very nature of the work itself. That is, the tasks that players are required to undertake (including when injured or fulfilling non-playing, contractual commitments) and the physical conditions in which these tasks are completed. Two categories of stressors were included in this theme: job content concerns and injuries. Concerns about job content included problems or worries participants had regarding the very nature of their job as a footballer. The most frequently cited sources of stress in this category was long training sessions. The feelings participants had towards this stressor were

10 10 A. J. NOBLET AND S. M. GIFFORD mixed. While participants recognized this as a source of strain, they also saw it as an integral part of being a being an elite footballer: The only thing that really pisses you off this time of year (pre-season) is probably the volume and intensity of what is required with training. Which is a necessary evil. The second category in this particular theme was injuries. Feeling left out when injured and the injury itself appeared to be major sources of stress for participants. In terms of the first source, participants who had undertaken rehabilitation programs by themselves indicated that during these periods they sometimes had difficulty dealing with the sense of isolation and lack of involvement they had experienced. Problems Associated with the Work/Non-Work Interface This final theme refers to problems or concerns that stemmed from the interface between participants football and non-football lives. The first category, relocation concerns, included problems associated with finding suitable accommodation, missing family and friends, and adjusting to independent living. The most common source of stress identified in the work/non-work conflict category was difficulty balancing work (football) and other job or study commitments. A major barrier to achieving a better balance between football and non-football pursuits appeared to be timing. One participant explained: It s not so much the workload, it s the hours you do. The hours that you have for football don t coincide with a 9-to-5 job. DISCUSSION The present study was designed to identify the types of situations or events that contribute to the stress experienced by a cross-section of AFL footballers. While the interviews and focus groups provided detailed information on the sources of stress experienced by the 32 participants taking part in this study, the results are not representative of all AFL footballers. Additional quantitative research is required to provide a more accurate understanding of the extent that these stressors are applicable to all registered players. A further limitation of this study is that all data was collected during the 1999 pre-season training period. Although players were encouraged to consider sources of stress that they had experienced at different stages of the year, it is possible that some players were preoccupied with their most recent experiences. A goal of future research would therefore be to undertake a longitudinal study that captured the seasonal demands faced by players. Despite these limitations, the interviews and focus groups revealed a wide range of sources of stress that are specific to professional Australian footballers. Significantly, many of the participants indicated that these stressors not only stemmed from the competitive event, but also from the broader work environment. Those sources of stress that directly related to competition included poor form, constant pressure to perform, and high performance expectations. Non-competition sources of stress covered such factors as job insecurity, long training sessions, lack of feedback, constant public scrutiny, and difficulty balancing football and other job/study commitments. These results share many similarities with previous stress in sport studies and indicate that both competition and non-competition sources of stress need to be considered when developing stress management interventions. The competition-based sources of stress identified in the present study parallel those reported in previous research. Worries about poor on-field performances, questioning whether you are good enough, and concerns about losing have all been identified in studies examining the sources of competition-induced anxiety (Feltz et al., 1992; Gould, Horn, & Spreeman, 1983; Gould & Weinberg, 1985; Kroll, 1980). The results of the present study are also consis-

11 SOURCES OF STRESS FOR PROFESSIONAL FOOTBALLERS 11 tent with studies that have gone beyond the competitive event and examined the entire sporting experience. For example, having to be consistently good, the fear of failure (Gould et al., 1993), not being accepted by peers, balancing skating and work/school, having reduced social life due to training demands (Scanlan et al., 1991), partiality by coaching staff, too much media attention (Gould et al., 1993), and injuries (Cohn, 1990; Gould et al., 1993) have all been identified in previous entire-sport research. Comparisons with previous studies that have examined the overall sporting experience are particularly revealing. Although there were three very different sports represented in these studies (i.e., golf, figure skating, and professional Australian football), there were many similarities in the competition and non-competition sources of stress that were experienced by participants. The similarities between the present study and previous research involving nonprofessional, single and dual-actor sports suggests that there is a core group of stressors experienced by all elite athletes. Stressors such as the constant pressure to perform to a high standard, worries about performing poorly, and the difficulties associated with balancing sporting and non-sporting commitments appear to be common to all elite sports people regardless of the sport they play or their professional status. Despite the large number of similarities between the present study and previous research examining the overall sporting experience, there are also some key differences. Some of the stressors that were reported by footballers that were not identified in either the figure skating or golfing studies included job insecurity, missing family/friends, accommodation problems, and a lack of feedback. These stressors may relate to two significant differences between AFL football and the other sports. The first of these differences is the professional status of AFL football and the long-distance relocation that many players are forced to experience as a result of their professional contracts. This feature of AFL football can account for the stress associated with job insecurity, missing family/friends, and accommodation problems. In contrast to the Cohn (1990), Gould et al. (1993), and Scanlan et al. (1991) studies, all participants in the current study were independent adults whose major source of income was derived from playing football. In light of the constant pressure to perform and the short career-span of professional Australian footballers, it is not surprising that job insecurity was identified as a source of stress for participants in the present study. Job insecurity may be perpetuated further by the time demands placed on footballers. It is not just the volume of time that limits a player s ability to pursue another career, and thus enhance long-term job prospects, but it is also the timing of the football commitments. Maintaining a standard Monday-Friday job is virtually impossible when, for example, impromptu team meetings are called or players are required to spend a Monday or a Friday traveling from one state to another. Although the participants in this study were independent adults, some were recent recruits who had been relocated from country regions or other states. With the AFL being a national competition, where players are recruited from all parts of Australia, relocation is a relatively common experience for AFL footballers. Missing close family and friends and accommodation problems are sources of stress that are undoubtedly linked to the relocation experiences of participants in this study. The last of the differences between the present study and previous research examining the entire sporting experience, a lack of feedback, relates to the team oriented nature of Australian football. AFL football clubs consist of a squad of 46 players who are supervized by a relatively small number of coaches, in most cases four or five. Although the authors of the figure skating and golfing studies did not provide information on the player-coach ratios, it could be assumed that as individual and dual-actor sports, this would be considerably lower. Consequently, AFL footballers may have less direct, one-on-one personal contact with their coaches and thus may not receive the same level of feedback as golfers or figure skaters.

12 12 A. J. NOBLET AND S. M. GIFFORD The differences and similarities in the sources of stress identified in this and previous studies have important implications. At a practical level, this study indicates that although there may be stressors commonly experienced by elite athletes, there are also sources of stress that are unique to specific situations. In the case of AFL football, situation-specific stressors such as job insecurity and inadequate feedback were associated with the professional status of those who play in this competition and the team oriented nature of the sport. The existence of situation-specific as well as common or generic stressors is consistent with studies involving nonathletic populations (Beehr, Jex, Stacy, & Murray, 2000; Sparks & Cooper, 1999) and reinforces the need to examine the background context of the sport being studied. Investigating this background context during the initial stages of the research process can alert researchers to relatively unique characteristics or circumstances that may be particularly stressful for the athletes concerned. The present study also reinforces the value of qualitative methods in helping researchers to gain a comprehensive understanding of the particular context experienced by athletes. The complimentary nature of the data gathered from the individual and the group interviews suggest that researchers who are investigating stress in sport should consider using multiple qualitative methods. The one-on-one interviews provided detailed information on the types of situations that were considered stressful and the contextual origins of these stressors. At the same time, the focus groups gave the authors the opportunity to explore other players interpretations of these situations and so enhance the level understanding of why these variables were considered stressful. A comprehensive understanding of factors that contribute to job stress is critical for ensuring that stress management strategies do not overlook or misinterpret key sources of strain (Sparks & Cooper, 1999). In summary, this study has provided a detailed insight into the sources of stress that were experienced by a cross-section of professional Australian footballers. These stressors stemmed from all aspects of the sporting experience, including performance related pressures, injury, relationships with coaches and team-mates, communication systems, and the interface between football and non-football commitments. The influence of both competition and noncompetition sources of stress indicate that the entire sporting experience needs to be taken into account when developing stress management strategies. Furthermore, the sources of stress that are closely related to the professional, team oriented nature of AFL football indicate that these strategies need to be also based on situation-specific as well as common sources of athlete stress. Qualitative methods, such as those used in this study, offer valuable opportunities for developing a comprehensive insight into the full range of stressors experienced by athletes. REFERENCES AFLPA. (1999). Australian Football League Players Association: 1999 Players handbook. Melbourne: Author. Australian Bureau of Statistics. (1999). Australian Bureau of Statistics World Wide Web Information Service [Online]. Available at Bakopanos, C., & Gifford, S. (2001). The changing ties that bind: Issues around sexuality and health for Greek parents and their Australian-born sons and daughters. Journal of Family Issues, 22, Beehr, T., Jex, S., Stacy, B., & Murray, M. (2000). Work stressors and coworker support as predictors of individual strain and job performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, Bernard, R. (1988). Unstructured and semi structured interviewing. In Research methods in cultural anthropology (pp ). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Blackwell, B., & McCullagh, P. (1990). The relationship of athletic injury to life stress, competitive anxiety and coping resources. Athletic Training, 25(1),

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