The Influence of the Dark Triad and Gender on Sexual Coercion Strategies of a Subclinical Sample. Master s Thesis. Presented to

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1 The Influence of the Dark Triad and Gender on Sexual Coercion Strategies of a Subclinical Sample Master s Thesis Presented to The Faculty of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Brandeis University Department of Psychology Raymond A. Knight, Advisor In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in Psychology by Katherine R. Finkelstein August 2014

2 Copyright by Katherine R. Finkelstein 2014

3 The author wishes to thank her advisor, Raymond A. Knight, for his guidance, enthusiasm, and generosity in sharing his comprehensive MIDSA database. iii

4 ABSTRACT The Influence of the Dark Triad and Gender on Sexual Coercion Strategies of a Subclinical Sample A thesis presented to the Department of Psychology Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Brandeis University Waltham, Massachusetts By Katherine R. Finkelstein The Dark Triad of Personality is composed of three higher-order personality constructs: subclinical narcissism, Machiavellianism, and subclinical psychopathy. Recent research indicates that the Dark Triad covaries with sexually coercive behavior, which is generally defined as a spectrum of tactics used by both men and women to obtain sexual activity and/or intercourse with an unwilling partner. The present study examines whether the use of specific sexual coercion strategies (i.e., seduction, manipulation, intoxication, and physical force) and the frequency with which sexual coercion is attempted and/or completed (i.e., rape) are influenced by the severity of Dark Triad trait expression and the gender of the perpetrator. Factor analysis of selected items from the Multidimensional Inventory of Development, Sex, and Aggression yielded factors comparable to the Dark Triad subcomponents. The predictive validity of these factors for sexually coercive tactics was, however, suboptimal. Results indicated that gender and overall lack of empathy were unique and independent predictors of seduction and overall sexual coercion. As such, gender and overall lack of empathy should be considered as separate constructs from the Dark Triad, particularly when analyzing the sexual behaviors of subclinical samples. iv

5 TABLE OF CONTENTS I. List of Tables vi II. Introduction 1 a. The Dark Triad of Personality.2 b. Sexual Coercion Strategies..6 c. Considering Gender of the Coercer as a Predictor..8 d. The Present Study..10 III. IV. Method.12 Results..15 V. Discussion 22 VI. VII. VIII. IX. Appendix A: Tables.28 Appendix B: Dark Triad Trait Subscales.40 Appendix C: Sexual Coercion Strategy Scales 44 References 46 v

6 LIST OF TABLES 1. Full Sample Characteristics 2. Scales Used to Measure Dark Triad Traits and Dark Triad 3. Descriptives for Sexual Coercion Strategies and Specific Acts 4. Correlations among Dark Triad Trait Variables 5. Independent T-Tests by Gender: Dark Triad Traits and Dark Triad Subscales 6. Independent T-Tests by Gender: Coercive Strategies and Specific Sex Acts 7. Obliquely Rotated Factor Loadings for Dark Triad Trait Scales 8. Correlations among Dark Triad Factors from Factor Analysis 9. Zero-Order Correlations for Seduction and Overall Coercion, Controlling for Gender 10. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions: Sexual Coercion Strategies 11. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions: Specific Sex Acts 12. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions: Physical Force vi

7 INTRODUCTION The personality constructs of the Dark Triad (subclinical narcissism, Machiavellianism, and subclinical psychopathy) have been individually linked to greater sexual hostility (Dreznick, Cronin, Waterman, & Glasheen, 2003; McHoskey, 2001; Seto, Khattar, Lalumitire, & Quinsey, 1997) and positivity towards rape (Bushman, Bonacci, Dijk, & Baumeister, 2003). For example, Bushman et al. (2003) found that men with greater narcissism have less empathy for rape victims, are more likely to adhere to rape myth ideologies, and perceive depictions of rape more favorably than men with less narcissism. Moreover, individuals displaying greater Machiavellian personalities are more inclined to feign love and use intoxication tactics to obtain sexual interaction (McHoskey, 2001), and individuals possessing greater psychopathic tendencies have been shown to have increased risk for behavioral deviance, which often culminates in sexual and/or non-sexual offending (Vitacco, Michael, Neumann, & Wodushek, 2008). Furthermore, psychopathy has been particularly well-documented as a covariate of sexual offending (see Knight & Guay, 2006 for an extensive review), and there is a positive correlation between psychopathy and the use of deception in sexual (and non-sexual) contexts (Seto, Khattar, Lalumitire, & Quinsey, 1997). Consequently, there is substantial data to support the hypothesis that as individual personality constructs, subclinical narcissism, Machiavellianism, and subclinical psychopathy influence sexually aggressive behavior. The expressions of each maladaptive personality trait exists on a continuum, as evidenced by the existence of empirically tested scales that assess the severity of an individual s Machiavellian, narcissistic, and psychopathic trait expressions: 1

8 MACH-IV, NPI, and the PPI-R, respectively (Christie & Geis, 1970; Lilienfeld & Widows, 2005; Raskin & Hall, 1979). As such, an overarching Dark Triad composite may comprise varying proportions of each construct. For example, one individual high on Dark Triad characteristics (e.g., characteristics from all three personality constructs) may manifest more narcissistic traits than Machiavellian or psychopathic traits, whereas another individual at the same level may have achieved that level with a different proportion of traits. Some research suggests that all three of these higher-order personality constructs deserve separate classifications because of the differing emphasis of certain traits and behaviors (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). In contrast, other researchers have argued that because many of these personality traits are highly inter-correlated, the Dark Triad must be conceptualized as a unitary construct (Jakobwitz & Egan, 2006). While prior research has focused mostly on these three higher-order personality constructs as individual and separate predictors of specific behaviors, it is essential to study not only how these individual constructs covary with aspects of sexual aggression, but how they work together. We do not know how the severity of Dark Triad trait expression influences the use of specific sexual coercion strategies (i.e., the use seduction, manipulation, intoxication, and physical force to obtain unwanted sexual interaction) and the frequency with which sexual coercion is attempted and/or completed (i.e., specific sex acts and rape). The present study seeks to address this crucial gap in the literature and to provide a more comprehensive understanding of how various forms of sexual aggression covary with the Dark Triad. The Dark Triad of Personality The Dark Triad of Personality is composed of three higher-order personality constructs: subclinical narcissism, Machiavellianism, and subclinical psychopathy (Jonason, Lyons, Bethel 2

9 & Ross, 2013; Jonason & Schmitt, 2012; Paulhus et al., 2002). These three personality constructs have been shown to be moderately correlated (Paulhus et al., 2002) and research suggests all three constructs are correlated with impulsivity (Jonason & Tost, 2010), manipulation, (Paulhus et al., 2002; Jonason et al., 2012; Jonason et al., 2013), behavioral aggression (Jones & Paulhus, 2010), and lack of empathy (Jonason et al., 2013; Paulhus et al., 2002). Due to this, I will highlight the typical trait components of these three constructs as proposed by previous research. Narcissism. Subclinical narcissism is characterized by self-admiration, self-entitlement, behavioral grandiosity (Paulhus, 2001; Jonason et al., 2013), as well as interpersonal exploitation and manipulation (McDonald, Donnellan, & Navarrete, 2012). Exploitation is suggested to be one of the key components of narcissism, indicating that a narcissist may possess greater disregard for social convention (Watson, Grisham, Trotter, & Biderman, 1984). Furthermore, narcissists report feeling less guilt and shame (Gramzov & Tagney, 1992) and seek interpersonal and relational dominance (Foster, Shrira, & Campbell, 2006). Machiavellianism. Machiavellianism is characterized by calculated manipulation of others, as well as a lack of interpersonal connection (Jonason & Webster, 2012; Rauthmann, 2012) and a lack of empathy (Jonason et al., 2013). Common manipulative and exploitative tactics used by Machiavellians include, but are not limited to, outright deceit, flattery, charming, and emotional detachment (Christie et al., 1970; Wilson, Near, & Miller, 1996). The exploitative tactics of Machiavellians can be characterized on a broad spectrum, from discrete to overt (Jonason et al., 2013), and occur across a variety of social contexts (Christie et al., 1970). Machiavellians are noted for having a cold or cynical outlook (Christie et al., 1970) and lack interpersonal concern for others due to high self-interest (Jakobwitz et al., 2006). 3

10 Psychopathy. The core features of subclinical psychopathy are considered to be manipulation and charm (O Toole, Smith, & Hare, 2008), callousness, (Hervé, Ling, & Hare, 2000), aggression (Blair, Mitchell, & Blair, 2008), impulsivity, antisociality, and lack of control (Hare, 1991). Impulsivity, or willingness to take risks even after considering the consequences (Fowles & Dindo, 2006, p. 26) and lack of planning (Ray, Poythress, Weir, & Rickelm, 2009) are considered main characteristics of the externalization of psychopathy (Hare, 1991; Blonigen et al., 2010) in both affective and interpersonal manifestations (Fowles et al., 2006). Individuals high in psychopathic traits exhibit a greater proclivity for aggression and violence (Blair et al., 2008), which may be exacerbated by low levels of guilt, shame, and overall empathy (Larson & Buss, 2006). The two-factor model of psychopathy (Hare, 1991; Harpur, Hare, & Hakstian, 1989; Jonason et al., 2013) suggests psychopathy can be divided into two categories. Whereas Factor 1 appears to characterize the interpersonal and affective components of psychopathy, Factor 2 characterizes social and behavioral deviance (Hicks & Patrick, 2004). Specifically, Factor 1 is known as primary or instrumental psychopathy and is characterized by callousness, deception, negative emotionality, and low levels of empathy (Falkenbach, Poythress, Falki, & Manchak, 2007; Hicks et al., 2004). The second is the reactive factor of psychopathy and is characterized by aggressive, antisocial, and impulsive behavior (Falkenbach et al., 2007; Hicks et al., 2004). From this description of the three higher-order constructs in the Dark Triad, it becomes evident that manipulation, deception, self-interest, interpersonal aggression, and lack of empathy are shared trait themes. Each personality trait does appear, however, to express a specific set of unique characteristics. Narcissism appears to express high self-centeredness and self- 4

11 entitlement; Machiavellianism relies heavily on calculated deception and social exploitation; and psychopathy exhibits greater behavioral deviance, impulsivity, and antisociality. Indeed, other researchers have suggested that the personality constructs that make up the Dark Triad have core trait facets that differentiate them from each other, establishing them as independent personality constructs, even though they are empirically related through permeating themes of aggressiveness, self-aggrandizement, and duplicity (Paulhus et al., 2002). Paulhus et al. (2002) have posited that the Dark Triad is best conceived as a triad in subclinical samples. They argued that even though these three personality constructs are moderately correlated, they are not equivalent on all factors. They suggested that although subclinical psychopathy, subclinical narcissism, and Machiavellianism overlap, they cannot be considered as equivalent, and thus each Dark Triad construct requires separate measurement. Nevertheless, it has been argued that the combination of psychopathy, narcissism, and Machiavellianism should be conceptualized as a triad. In an evaluation of the Dark Triad through a comparative factor analysis with the Big Five personality constructs (i.e., Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness), Jakobwitz et al. (2006) suggested that although psychopathy does in fact have two factors to consider, the trait elements of the higher-order personality constructs of Dark Triad are so closely overlapped that it may be unhelpful to try to differentiate them, especially in general, subclinical populations. This perspective suggests that since the personality constructs of the Dark Triad are highly correlated, it is more appropriate to consider the combination as a unitary construct of correlated traits rather than a triad of personalities. In sum, it is possible that because subclinical psychopathy, subclinical narcissism, and Machiavellianism share trait components, these personality constructs are actually variations of a 5

12 similar, dark theme of traits. Considering this, it may be more helpful to examine the Dark Triad by its correlated components on a dimensional scale of Dark Trait expression rather than a split triad of personalities, especially in analyses of subclinical samples. Due to this, there may be a dimensionality of possible trait expression; different individuals may express different variations of Dark Triad traits. As such, if a dimension of Dark Triad trait expression more accurately represents the Dark Triad in subclinical samples, it is possible that the variations of Dark Trait expression may predict distinctive manifestations of sexual aggression. Considering the past research linking narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy to sociosexuality and sexual dominance (Bushman et al., 2003; Dreznick et al., 2003; McHoskey, 2001; Seto et al., 1997; Vitacco et al., 2008), Dark Triad trait expression may be related to an individual s preferred sexual coercion strategies to obtain sexual gratification. Sexual Coercion Strategies Sexual coercion, which is defined as continued pressure for sexual compliance after someone has indicated reluctance to comply, can be perpetrated in a number of ways. An encompassing model reflecting this spectrum was proposed by Schatzel-Murphy, Harris, Knight, and Milburn (2009) who divided sexually coercive behaviors into four distinct tactical categories: (a) seduction, (b) manipulation, (c) intoxication, and (d) physical force. In this conceptualization, verbal coercion (i.e., seduction, manipulation) denotes the use of emotional and verbal tactics to force a non-consenting partner into sexual activity. Nonphysical tactics often include verbal pressure, emotional threats/manipulation (e.g., threatening to end the relationship, revoking love, claiming interest in someone else), deception, and ignoring partner unwillingness (Koss & Oros, 1982). In some forms of verbal manipulation, the aggressor will beg, plead, pressure, or threaten the victim, causing the target to more readily comply to 6

13 circumvent negative consequences. This supposed acquiescence gives the aggressor the illusion that the target has willfully given consent (Basile, 1999). Conversely, physical coercion (i.e., physical force), uses physical elements, such as pinning down, grabbing, hitting, restricting, blocking, etc. (Hines, 2007). Intoxication may be conceptualized as a physical or nonphysical coercive tactic, but it generally stands alone, as it distinctly involves having victims consume (either knowingly or unknowingly) alcohol and/or drugs to impair his/her judgment (Schatzel- Murphy et al., 2009). Regardless of tactic, the fulfillment of a sexually coercive act usually culminates in sexual touching, genital contact, and/or penetration (i.e., oral, anal, and/or vaginal) of an unwilling partner (Byers & Glenn, 2012; Crown & Roberts, 2007; O Sullivan, Byers & Finkelman, 1998). By studying in detail the relationship each construct of the Dark Triad with the various forms of sexual coercion, we might better differentiate among the diversity of tactics used to sexually coerce. In other words, if conceptualizing the Dark Triad as a dimension of Dark Traits is found to be a more accurate representation of the Dark Triad in subclinical samples, certain forms of sexual coercion may be exacerbated by specific traits, or combination of traits. For example, individuals who exhibit greater impulsivity, behavioral aggression, and callousness may be more inclined to use manipulation and physical force strategies to obtain sexual interactions. Alternatively, individuals with greater self-centered grandiosity and superficial charm may be more inclined to use seduction and intoxication tactics. Of course, it is possible that depending on the variations of trait expressions, an individual may begin with one strategy and move on to another if the initial coercion tactic does not work (e.g., seduction to intoxication; manipulation to physical force, etc.). Yet, if the Dark Triad constructs (i.e., subclinical psychopathy, subclinical narcissism, and Machiavellianism) are not found to be 7

14 equivalent in subclinical samples, suggesting each construct requires separate measurement (Paulhus et al., 2002), the personality constructs forming the Dark Triad may still individually predict specific sexual coercion strategies and sexually aggressive behaviors. Nevertheless, it is not solely Dark Triad traits that influence sexual coercion strategies. Considering the dominant/submissive sex role stereotyping between men and women, we must consider these social expectations when examining coercive strategies. For example, sexual script theory suggests that there are social constructs present in our society that define how a man or a woman should behave in sexual or romantic situations; masculine sexual scripts bolster virility, promiscuity, and the active pursuance of sex, whereas female sexual scripts bolster sexual selectivity, confining women into the role of sexual monitor (Byers & O Sullivan, 1996; Hartwick, Desmarais, & Hennig, 2007; O Sullivan et al., 1998). As such, these social expectations surrounding sex and gender may influence the preference of certain coercive strategies. Considering Gender of the Coercer as a Predictor Much of the research on the sex differences of sexual coercion supports the consistent finding that men are typically the aggressors and women are typically the victims (Frieze, Hymer, & Greenberg, 1984; Poppen & Segal, 1988). This dichotomy of female-victim, maleaggressor has been found not only in studies focusing on sexual coercion, but in studies targeting sexual harassment, sexual assault, and rape (Koss, 1985; Lewin, 1985; Malamuth, 1986). This dichotomous model, however, is not without its critics, and its generalization requires significant modification (Schatzel-Murphy et al., 2009). The percentage of occurrence for different sexually coercive tactics varies between men and women. The data suggest that verbal manipulation of some form is the primary tactic used 8

15 by female coercers on males and is hypothesized to be the choice tactic in 36% to 85% of all sexually coercive interactions (Koss et al., 1982; Poppen et al., 1988). Hogben and Waterman (2000) report, however, that men make significantly more persistent attempts than women in using verbal manipulation. Yet, O Sullivan et al. (1998) report that 43% of women as compared to 19% of men experienced sexual coercion during the year prior to their survey, and only 9% of women as compared to 20% of men admitted to using some form of sexual coercion. Furthermore, McConaghy and Zamir (1995) report that 7% of men as compared to 16% of women in their sample experienced sexual coercion through physical force. Conversely, Hogben et al. (2000) found that college-aged males and females used the same amount of physical violence in trying to procure non-consensual sex. Struckman-Johnson, Struckman-Johnson, and Anderson (2003) replicated these findings, showing that 5% of the men and 3% of the women in their survey reported using physical force to obtain sex. In considering these rates of sexual coercion perpetration between men and women, Struckman-Johnson et al. (2003) suggested that women may use gentler or less exploitative tactics than men, indicating that there are sex differences within the subcategories of sexual coercion strategies, but the frequency with which sexual coercion is employed by men and women may be similar (p. 85). As such, it is clear that the idea that males experience more verbal coercion and females experience more physical coercion has not universally been supported. In a large survey study of college students, Fiebert and Osburn (2001) examined rates of victimization from sexual coercion and found that more males than females indicated experiencing victimization at mild, moderate, and severe levels of sexual coercion (i.e., verbal to physical force). Due to these findings, Fiebert et al. (2001) assert that these data challenge the idea that men are victimized by a smaller range of sexual coercion tactics than women. Although some research, like Fiebert et 9

16 al. (2001), has suggests a greater male victimization, most research indicates either an equal perpetration between men and women or a generally higher likelihood of male perpetration and female victimization. Considering the conflicting research, there is evidence that there are sex differences in sexually coercive behavior, but agreement as to what these differences are (e.g., in coercive strategy, frequency of sexual coercion, or both) remains to be defined. The present study seeks to further investigate this issue by examining sex differences in expression of Dark Triad traits and preference for specific sexual coercion strategies. The Present Study Because the Dark Triad traits directly influence interpersonal relationships, and involve characteristics that devalue others and support the manipulation and control of others to obtain one s goals, it is warranted to study the relation of the triad to sexual coercion. Because sexually coercive behaviors hinge on an array of manipulative, controlling, impulsive, and forceful tactics (Schatzel-Murphy et al., 2009), sexual coercion strategies appear to directly mimic the intercorrelated Dark Triad traits. Taking this into account, the use of specific sexual coercion strategies and the frequency to which sexual coercion is attempted and/or completed may be highly influenced by the severity of the expression of Dark Triad traits, as well as the gender of the coercer. In addition, this study seeks to determine whether conceptualizing the Dark Triad as a unitary construct or analyzing its traits separately (particularly for non-pathological samples) provides the best explanatory power for sexual coercion strategies. To determine this, the factor structure of the triad will first be explored. Then, depending if the Dark Triad is found to be a unitary construct or a triad of personalities, the predictive power of its subcomponents in relation to sexual coercion strategies and gender will be examined. 10

17 In sum, the current exploratory study seeks to investigate (a) whether the Dark Triad is more accurately characterized as a unitary construct of related traits or a triad of related personalities, (b) whether the subcomponents of the Dark Triad or the overall construct better predicts the frequency of coercive behaviors and specific sexually coercive strategies, (c) whether the subcomponents or the overall construct better predicts likelihood of perpetrating specific sex acts by male and female coercers, and (d) whether these covariations are similar or different for men and women. My hypotheses are as follows: 1. Factor analysis of the Dark Triad traits will reveal a unitary construct. 2. Overall, higher scores of Dark Triad traits (or the Dark Triad, if Hypothesis 1 is not supported) will be related to more frequent sexually coercive behaviors and completed intercourse. 3. Higher scores of behaviorally aggressive Dark Triad traits (e.g., impulsivity, oppositional behavior, sexual compulsivity) will be related to physical sexual coercion strategies, and traits of manipulation (e.g., conning and superficial charm, self-centered grandiosity) will be related to verbal sexual coercion strategies. 4. Higher scores of behaviorally aggressive Dark Triad traits (e.g., impulsivity, aggressive tendency, oppositional behavior) will have a stronger relationship to a completed intercourse (i.e., rape) outcome, than traits of manipulation (e.g., conning and superficial charm, self-centered grandiosity). 5. Males will employ more physical coercion strategies than females (i.e., physical force and intoxication). 6. Overall, males will employ sexually coercive tactics more frequently than females. 7. Overall, males will perpetrate more sex acts/rape completion. 11

18 METHOD Participants Data used in this study were existing, de-identified data collected from the Multidimensional Inventory of Development, Sex, and Aggression database (MIDSA, 2011). The MIDSA is a computerized, contingency-based inventory that surveys various components that are related to psychopathic traits, antisocial tendencies, and sexual aggression (MIDSA, 2011), and has been described in extensive detail elsewhere. The sample included male (N = 61, 43.9%) and female (N = 78, 56.1%) college students who were administered the MIDSA. All students participated as part of an introductory psychology research requirement at either Brandeis University or University of Massachusetts Dartmouth. IRBs at both universities approved the study. The following demographic information was collected from participants: participant sex, race/ethnicity, age, if they were currently attending college during the time of assessment, and job history (see Table 1). Because this sample was derived from a university student population, the sample for this study is fairly young with 80.5% of the participants being either 18 or 19 years of age. Half of the sample was also Caucasian (54.0%). At the time of survey participation, all participants were at least 18 years of age or older. Each participant registered for a two-hour time slot (i.e., the length of time to complete the full survey) through an electronic participant system for psychology students of the university (i.e., Experimetrix). Compensation for the full completion of the survey was a two credit award for the university s research requirement. 12

19 Materials Dark Triad Trait Subscales. Specific subscale items and full subscales were selected from the main MIDSA to capture the facets of the trait components of the Dark Triad and sexually coercive behaviors. The final subscales for this study include: (a) Conning and Superficial Charm (α =.81), (b) Impulsivity (α =.83), (c) Self-Centered Grandiosity (α =.61), (d) Blame Externalization (α =.85), (e) Lack of Affective Empathy (α =.67), (f) Lack of Perspective-Taking (α =.64), (g) Juvenile Oppositional Behavior (α =.89), (h) Aggressive Tendencies (i.e., combination of both Physical Fighting and Constantly Angry subscales) (α =.87), (i) Sexual Compulsivity (α =.89), (j) Sexual Dominance (α =.55). Higher scores on each individual subscale indicate a higher tendency for that/those particular trait(s) (see Appendix B for items). Two additional subscales of (l) Positive Image (α =.55) and (m) Negative Emotion Denial (.69) were reverse-scored. Higher scores on the Positive Image scale indicate a proclivity for making negative attributions about oneself. Higher scores on the Negative Emotion Denial indicate that the participant was more likely to admit to experiencing negative emotions. Since our population was mainly college-aged students, the Juvenile Oppositional Behavior scale better applies to this study because it captures a larger time block of antisocial behavior throughout the sample population s lives (i.e., until they turned 18). The Aggressive Tendencies scale contains items that address the participants current physical and verbal aggressiveness to produce an overall aggressive tendency score. Sexual Coercion Strategies and Specific Sex Acts. Sexual coercion strategies were measured by four subscales (see Schatzel-Murphy et al., 2009): Seduction, Intoxication, Manipulation, Physical Force (see Appendix C for items). Items in each sexual coercion subscale were examined independently to assess strategy outcomes and perpetration of specific 13

20 sex acts for each strategy. Within these coercion subscales were items addressing specific sex acts performed after the use of the coercive strategy: (a) Sexplay, (b) Attempted, and (c) Completed Intercourse. Sexplay is defined in the MIDSA as fondling, kissing, or petting. The word Intercourse is defined as someone putting their penis into someone s vagina. Attempted is defined as trying and not succeeding, and Completed indicates successful intercourse. The seduction strategy scale was created by averaging the frequency of the participant s use of the seduction items (e.g., flirting, using gentle physical contact) specified in Appendix C in attaining one of specific sex acts (i.e., Sexplay, Attempted Intercourse, and Completed Intercourse). The Manipulation (e.g., bribing, evoking jealousy, insulting), Intoxication (e.g., taking advantage of someone who is drunk, getting someone drunk), and Physical Force (e.g., threatening to use physical force/violence, using physical force/violence) scales were also created by averaging the frequency of the participants use of the respective scale items to attain one of the specific sex acts (Appendix C). 14

21 RESULTS Preliminary Analyses Response Characteristics. Dark Triad trait score averages of male and female participants, the frequency of the use of sexual coercion strategies, and the frequency of perpetrating specific sexual acts are presented in Tables 2 and 3. Sexual coercion scales were low and frequently were positively skewed. This response was expected because of the nonpathological, subclinical nature of this specific sample population. It would be expected that if this were a clinical/incarcerated population, responses would be negatively skewed. In this respect, the response patterns are normal for the present sample. Regardless, a log10 transformation was attempted to address this skewness. Transforming the skewed variables did not significantly change the normality, as observed using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test. Because there was no significant change in skewness, no variable transformations were used for the subsequent data analyses. Table 4 presents the correlations found among the Dark Triad trait scales. The moderate correlations indicated that there was minimal risk of multicollinaerity, and no Dark Triad variables exceeded a VIF of 4.00 or possessed a tolerance less than Independent T-Tests for Participant Sex. Table 5 displays significant gender differences between the Dark Triad Traits. Male participants scored significantly higher on Conning and Superficial Charm, Self-Centered Grandiosity, Juvenile Oppositional Behavior, Aggressive Tendency, and Sexual Compulsivity; whereas female participants scored only significantly higher than male participants in Positive Image (Table 5). Additionally, significant gender differences were found in the coercive strategy of Seduction and Overall Coercive Behavior with 15

22 males indicating greater use of Seduction strategies and Overall Coercive Behavior than female participants (Table 6). This acts as initial support for our hypothesis that males employ sexually coercive tactics more frequently than females, specifically in Seduction and when multiple other sexually coercive strategies are taken into account (i.e., Seduction, Manipulation, Intoxication, and Physical Force). Male participants also indicated perpetration of all of the specific sex acts examined in this study significantly more than female participants (i.e., Sexplay, Attempted Intercourse, and Completed Intercourse) (see Table 6). These results support past research that indicates males tend to perpetrate coercive sex acts more frequently than females and are more likely to perpetrate completed intercourse (i.e., rape) (Frieze et al., 1984; Koss, 1985; Lewin, 1985; Malamuth, 1986; Poppen et al., 1988; O Sullivan et al., 1998). Dark Triad Factor Analysis A principal axis factor analysis was conducted on the 12 Dark Triad Trait subscales with oblique rotation (direct oblimin). The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure verified the sampling adequacy for the analysis (KMO =.79) with Barlett s measure indicating significance, p <.001. An initial analysis was run to obtain eigenvalues for each factor in the data: four factors had eigenvalues over Kaiser s criterion of 1 and in combination explained 72.47% of the variance. The scree plot showed an inflection that justified retaining four factors. Table 4 shows the factor loadings after rotation. It is clear that these four factor loadings show the individual personality constructs of the Dark Triad (i.e., Psychopathy, Narcissism, and Machiavellianism) with an additional loading that represents an Overall Lack of Empathy (i.e., Lack of Affective Empathy and Lack of Perspective-Taking) (Table 7). These findings do not support the hypothesis that the Dark Triad traits would reveal a unitary construct in this non-pathological sample. This factor analysis suggests that even in 16

23 subclinical, non-incarcerated samples, a subclinical version of the Dark Triad of Personality is still applicable; subclinical psychopathy, subclinical Narcissism, and Machiavellianism form separate factors. This indicates that each Dark Triad personality construct is worthy of independent assessment. As such, the original, subsequent hypotheses predicting that certain Dark Triad traits would be related to specific sexual coercion strategies and outcomes are suboptimal perspectives in addressing the possible relationships between Dark Triad and sexual aggression. Because of this factor analysis outcome indicating the existence of a subclinical Dark Triad, I created four new subscales using the traits in each respective factor loading: Psychopathy (α =.83), Narcissism (α =.57), Machiavellianism (α =.66), and Overall Lack of Empathy (α =.55). The relatively low Cronbach s alpha of the Narcissism and Lack of Empathy scores is unsurprising, as both Narcissism and Empathy are notoriously complex constructs to measure due to the spectrum expression of these personality characteristics (Marshall, Hudson, Jones, & Fernandez, 1995; Ackerman, Donnellan, & Robins, 2012). The Psychopathy factor loading appears to adhere to the Factor 2 Psychopathy, which focuses on Behavioral Reactivity (Hicks & Patrick, 2004). Interestingly, the loadings for Machiavellianism not only include Conning and Superficial Charm, but both Sexual Compulsivity and Sexual Dominance. This may accurately reflect the greater active sociosexuality (i.e., promiscuous, hostile, and callous sexual attitude) found in Machiavellians that is evident in past research (McHoskey, 2001). The grouping of Blame Externalization with the Self-Centered Grandiosity seems to be directly in line with empirical descriptions of subclinical Narcissism (Paulhus, 2001; Jonason et al., 2013). Correlations among the Dark Triad scales were significant, indicating that the three scales are moderately related (Table 8). Results indicate that the greater subclinical psychopathy a 17

24 participant possessed, the more likely the participant was to express greater Narcissism (r (136) =.41, p <.001) and Machiavellianism, r (125) =.60, p <.001. Additionally, the greater the Narcissism of a participant, the more likely the participant expressed Machiavellianism, r (125) =.41, p <.001). These results are in accordance with previous findings of the moderate intercorrelations among the Dark Triad personality constructs (Paulhus et al., 2002). The fourth factor, Lack of Empathy, was not significantly correlated with any of the Dark Triad traits. This indicates that Lack of Empathy may be a unique and independent construct to consider when using the Dark Triad to analyze specific behavioral outcomes. Gender differences were only found in Psychopathy (t (134) = 3.02, p =.003) and Machiavellianism, t(123) = 4.04, p <.001 (see Table 5). This is consistent with past research that suggests males are much more likely to express Dark Triad traits than females (Jonason & Webster, 2010). Hierarchical Multiple Regressions Having executed the necessary preliminary analyses, I was able to fit a series of twostage hierarchical multiple regression models to examine the coercive strategies (i.e., Seduction, Manipulation, Intoxication, and Physical Force) and specific sex acts (i.e., Sexplay, Attempted Intercourse, and Completed Intercourse) using the Dark Triad Scales formed from the factor analyses (i.e., Psychopathy, Narcissism, and Machiavellianism) as well as the fourth factor loading scale of Overall Lack of Empathy. The variable of participant sex (i.e., male or female) was entered at stage one in each model to control for potential gender-based influences. The Dark Triad and Lack of Empathy were entered in stage two for each model. The series of hierarchical multiple regressions revealed that Seduction and Overall Coercive Behavior were the only coercive strategy outcomes significantly predicted by any of the predictor variables in this study. No Dark Triad variables (i.e., Psychopathy, Narcissism, and 18

25 Machiavellianism) were found to be unique predictors. Without controlling for any other variables, participant sex significantly predicted Seduction strategy (b = -.42, p =.001) and accounted for 17.5% (R 2 =.175) of the variance in Seduction, F(1, 63) = 13.37, p =.001. The combination of Psychopathy, Narcissism, Machiavellianism (i.e., Dark Triad Scales) and Lack of Empathy, while holding participant sex constant, accounted for approximately 30% (R 2 =.302) of the variance in Seduction (F(5, 59) = 5.11, p =.001, R 2 Change =.040), but the only unique predictors from the Seduction model were participant sex (b = -.32, p =.008) and Lack of Empathy (b =.32, p =.005) (Table 10). Without controlling for any other variables, participant sex was also a significant predictor for Overall Coercive Behavior (b = -.32, p =.010) and accounted for only 10% (R 2 =.100) of the variance in overall coercive behavior, F(1, 63) = 7.03, p =.010. No other variables were significant (Table 9). A zero order correlation was used to assess the relationship between Seduction and Lack of Empathy, controlling for gender. Table 10 indicates that gender has almost no effect on the observed strength of the relationship between Seduction and Lack of Empathy. A series of zero order correlations were also used to assess the relationships between Overall Coercion and Lack of Empathy and the Dark Triad variables, controlling for gender. Table 9 again indicates that gender has almost no effect on the strength of the relationship between Overall Coercive Behavior and Lack of Empathy, Psychopathy, Narcissism, or Machiavellianism. Furthermore, split-file regression analyses of male and female participants confirmed that pulling out the predictive variance of gender in the first stage in the hierarchical regression did not mask differential sex predictions. All sexual coercion models (i.e., Seduction, Manipulation, Intoxication, Physical Force, and Overall Coercive Behavior) containing the Dark Triad and Lack of Empathy as predictive variables were not found to be significant for both males and 19

26 females respectively. As such, these results fail to support our hypothesis that males employ more physical coercion strategies (i.e., Intoxication, Physical Force) than females. These results do, however, support our hypothesis that males employ sexual coercion tactics more frequently than females, specifically in Seduction and Overall Coercive Behaviors (see Table 6). All of the specific sex acts explored in this study (i.e., Sexplay, Attempted Intercourse, and Completed Intercourse), exhibited significance in the hierarchical multiple regression models (Table 11). For Sexplay, the stage one model was significant and included only participant sex as a significant predictor (b = -.33, p =.008), which accounted for approximately 11% (R 2 =.108) of the variance in Sexplay, F(1, 63) = 7.62, p =.008. Participant sex in the stage one model was also the only significant predictor of Attempted Intercourse (b = -.30, p =.015) and accounted for only 9% (R 2 =.090) of the variance in Attempted Intercourse, F(1,63) = 6.21, p =.015. Likewise, the stage one model with only participant sex was the only significant predictor of Completed Intercourse (b = -.32, p =.009), which accounted for approximately 10% (R 2 =.104) of the variance of Completed Intercourse, F(5, 59) = 2.38, p =.049. Again. split-file regression analyses of male and female participants confirmed that pulling out the predictive variance of gender in the first stage in the hierarchical regression did not mask differential sex predictions. All specific sex act models (i.e., Sexplay. Attempted Intercourse, and Completed Intercourse) containing the Dark Triad and Lack of Empathy as predictive variables were not found to be significant for both males and females respectively. The Dark Triad variables and Lack of Empathy were not significantly unique predictors for any of the specific acts explored in this study. This supports our hypothesis that male participants would report more instances of perpetrating sexual interaction through sexual coercion strategies (see Table 6). 20

27 Removing Lack of Empathy from Hierarchical Regression Models We were interested in seeing how the significance of the Dark Triad would change if Lack of Empathy was removed from the coercion/specific act models. The same hierarchical multiple regressions were run again with participant sex entered at stage one and the Dark Triad variables entered at stage two. The results were the same as above: participant sex remained the unique predictor when Lack of Empathy was not present in the models. There was, however, one exception found in Physical Force Strategy. Without Lack of Empathy in the model and holding participant sex constant, Narcissism became the only unique predictor for the Physical Force outcome (b = -.27, p =.007). This model with Narcissism as the only significant predictor accounted for approximately 31% (R 2 =.305) of the variance of Physical Force, F(4, 120) = 3.08, p =.019 (Table 10). This finding was intriguing because Narcissism showed to be a significant predictor of Physical Force (b = -.27, p =.037) when Lack of Empathy was included in the model and participant sex was held constant, though this model was not significant overall (F(5, 73) = 1.50, p =.199) and accounted for only 9% (R 2 =.093) of the variance in Physical Force (Table 12). This trend suggests that out of the four coercive strategies explored as outcomes in this study, Physical Force may be the most susceptible to influence from Dark Triad traits, specifically Narcissism, regardless of participant sex. 21

28 DISCUSSION This study addressed the issues of whether the use of specific sexual coercion strategies (i.e., Seduction, Manipulation, Intoxication, and Physical Force) and the frequency of particular types of coercive sex acts (i.e., Sexplay, Attempted Intercourse, and Completed Intercourse) were influenced by the severity of Dark Triad trait/personality expression, as well as gender of the coercer. This study also examined the critical hypothesis that the Dark Triad may be better conceptualized as a unitary construct in non-incarcerated, subclinical samples, rather than as a triad of independent, but inter-correlated personality constructs. Overall, no Dark Triad constructs were found to impact sexual coercion strategies or particular coercive sexual acts significantly, disconfirming the original hypothesis that higher Dark Triad scores would be related to sexually coercive tactics and levels of coercive sex acts. Narcissism was, however, a possible exception to this, showing a trend to predict strategies involving Physical Force. This trend offers potential evidence supporting that the populations with greater Dark Triad traits may be more susceptible to perpetrating forcible rape. Nevertheless, the results did not significantly support the hypothesis that higher scores of Dark Triad traits are related to the use of more physically coercive strategies (i.e., intoxication and physical force), as compared to verbal coercion. Finally, our results supported the hypotheses that males are more likely than females to sexually coerce overall, regardless of the level of coercive sexual acts engaged. 22

29 The Dark Triad and Empathy as Predictors The hypothesis that the Dark Triad should be conceptualized as a single dimension in non-criminal, non-pathological samples was not supported. Our factor analysis revealed that psychopathic (i.e., Factor 2), Machiavellian, and narcissistic traits were clearly loaded into separate, but correlated factors. This is particularly helpful for future research focusing on the Dark Triad s impact on other behavioral outcomes in subclinical and non-incarcerated samples. The surprise in this factor analysis was the factor loading of a fourth independent factor, which included Lack Perspective-Taking and Lack of Affective Empathy (i.e., Overall Lack of Empathy). The fact that these two scales did not load on the other factors of the Dark Triad raises many interesting questions, especially in relation to our subsequent results with the regression analyses. It is crucial to note that although many empirical descriptions of psychopathy, Narcissism, and Machiavellianism indicate a lack of empathetic ability (i.e., affective empathy and perspective-taking) to some measurable degree (see Jonason et al., 2013; Paulhus et al., 2002), our results found no correlation between Overall Lack of Empathy and the Dark Triad in this sample. These results may then suggest that the Dark Triad should be measured with scales that assess empathy, as empathetic ability may be an entirely independent predictor in subclinical samples and may not be encompassed within the conceptualization of subclinical Dark Triad personalities, unlike clinical Dark Triad. This concept is supported by the fact that Overall Lack of Empathy was a unique predictor for Seduction, whereas the Dark Triad did not significantly predict any sexually coercive behavior in this study. Because of this, an overall lack of empathy may be an even stronger predictor of sexual coercion in pathological samples. The existence of empathetic ability as a unique predictor and a separate factor in this subclinical sample suggests that future research examining the Dark Triad and sexual coercion 23

30 should also evaluate lack of affective empathy, lack of perspective-taking, interpersonal compassion, and other markers of empathy (Marshall et al., 1995) as unique behavioral predictors. Sexual Coercion Strategies It is unsurprising that the sexual coercion strategy categories found to be both significant and the most common in this sample were Seduction and the Overall Coercive Behavior (i.e., taking all strategies into account for sexually coercive behavior outcome). Because seduction is a form of coercion that is achieved by both men and women with tactics ranging from subtle and non-threatening to very direct (Shakelford & Goetz, 2004), this strategy is set apart from the more outright manipulative and forceful strategies, potentially making it the most common form of sexual coercion (as was observed in this study). Of course, some participants did indicate engagement in coercive strategies using Manipulation, Intoxication, and Physical Force, but these instances were not significant in frequency. This may again suggest that samples with greater clinical levels of Dark Triad characteristics (e.g., incarcerated samples of sex offenders) will exhibit a significant increase in perpetration of all sexual coercion categories. Gender as a Significant Predictor for Sexual Coercion Male participants used seduction and possessed overall greater sexually coercive behavior than female participants. Moreover, males were significantly more likely to perpetrate sexually coercive sexplay, attempted intercourse, and completed intercourse (i.e., rape). This provides support for previous studies suggesting that males are more likely to be sexual aggressors than females (Frieze et al., 1984; Koss, 1985; Lewin, 1985; Malamuth, 1986; Poppen et al., 1988). The importance of this finding is that in this subclinical sample, gender was by far the most important predictor for sexual aggression and aggressive behavior in general (i.e., 24

31 Juvenile Oppositional Behavior, Aggressive Tendency, and Sexual Compulsivity). This finding in combination with empathetic ability as a unique predictor of seduction suggests that coercive sexual behavior may be heavily influenced by such issues as gender role stereotyping, rape myth ideologies, and sexual scripts (Burt, 1990; Byers & O Sullivan, 1996; Crown & Roberts, 2007; O Sullivan et al., 1998), which may better explain the lack of variance accounted for in the regression models in this study. Because men are seen as sexual opportunists under sexual script theory (Byers et al., 1996; Hartwick et al., 2007; O Sullivan et al., 1998), it is usually perceived to be more socially acceptable for men to actively pursue sex than it is for women. Such behaviors may serve to foster more instances of sexual coercion by men. Yet, females and males may have differing conceptualizations of what sexual coercion is, and the female use of verbal tactics (as the primary tactic for sexual coercion by females) may be perpetrated differently than male use of verbal tactics. Considering this, it is the element of acquiring control within the imbalanced delegation of power that exists within the gender binary and sexual script theory that may serve as a possible explanation for these differing conceptualizations of sexual coercion (see Schatzel-Murphy et al., 2009). Limitations An obvious limitation of this study was the relatively small sample size, which limited the power for analyses. Additionally, our sample presented limitations in that participants were derived from a university setting and age-range was significantly homogenous. Future research may want to consider exploring non-university populations for comparison purposes. Another limitation is that rape myth ideologies, sexual scripts, and gender role stereotyping were not explored in concert with the Dark Triad measures, and future research should seek to explore this, especially in light of the current evidence of gender differences in 25

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