An In-Depth Analysis of the Uses of Imagery by High-Level Slalom Canoeists and Artistic Gymnasts

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1 The Sport Psychologist, 1998,12, O 1998 Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc. An In-Depth Analysis of the Uses of Imagery by High-Level Slalom Canoeists and Artistic Gymnasts Alison White University of Bath Lew Hardy University of Wales This study employed a qualitative methodology to examine the ways in which imagery is used by high-level slalom canoeists (n = 3) and artistic gymnasts (n = 3). Participants were interviewed about their imagery use and experiences in different environments. Athletes' responses were analyzed using inductive and deductive procedures. A total of 43 raw data themes formed 10 first order and 3 second order dimensions, characterizing the athletes' uses of imagery. Participants reported using imagery in a variety of different environments for cognitive and motivational purposes. Data showed several differences between the canoeists' and gymnasts' uses of imagery, reflecting the differing task demands of each sport. The experience of imagery was unique to each individual, and athletes were able to emphasize certain aspects or manipulate the content of their images for specific cognitive or motivational functions. Investigators have examined sport performers' use of psychological skills, such as goal setting, imagery, relaxation, and attention control, to determine differences between athletes at different skill and success levels (Mahoney & Avener, 1977; Mahoney, Gabriel & Perkins, 1987; Orlick & Partington, 1988). Sport performers can use imagery in various ways, which include reducing warm-up decrement prior to performance (Ainscoe & Hardy, 1987), analyzing past performance (Syer & Connolly, 1998), reducing anxiety (Davidson & Schwartz, 1976), and introducing stress inoculation into training (Mace & Carroll, 1985). Elite sport performers have reported further uses of imagery, such as mentally rehearsing race or match strategies to assist goal setting, enhance self-confidence, improve concentration, reduce anxiety, and enhance quality of training (Hemery, 1986; Jones & Hardy, 1990; Orlick and Partington, 1988). Alison White is with the Department of Sports Development and Recreation at the University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, England, BA2 7AY. Lew Hardy is with the School of Sport, Health and Physical Education Sciences at the University of Wales, Bangor, Victoria Dr., Bangor, Gwynedd, Wales, LL57 2EW.

2 388 Whiteand Hardy The few studies that have focused on the use of imagery by athletes from different sports have employed quantitative surveys. Hall, Rodgers, and Barr (1990) found that athletes reported using imagery more in conjunction with competition than training and that they used it more for its motivational function than for any other purpose. Salmon, Hall, and Haslam (1994) devised a sport-specific Imagery Use Questionnaire to study how soccer players at different skill levels used imagery. They found that these individuals reported more imagery use for motivational rather than cognitive purposes, and that, compared to local participants, national players used imagery more frequently before and after games and outside of practice or game situations. Paivio (1985) proposed that imagery exerts its influence on performance and learning via cognitive and motivational functions, thus incorporating the variety of ways that it can be used in training and competition situations. Furthermore, Paivio suggested that both imagery functions operate at two levels: specific and general. Thus, for the cognitive role, imagery could be used to rehearse isolated sport skills at a specific level or practice behavioral strategies at a general one. For the motivational role, imagery could be used to improve motivation toward specific skills (e.g., seeing oneself successfully achieve a specific goal or outcome) or enhance motivation at a general level by creating an appropriate mood or arousal state for the activity. Recently, Hall, Mack, Paivio, and Hausenblas (in press) developed the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ) to explore imagery use according to Paivio's (1985) framework. The SIQ surveyed the use of five different types of images to measure motivational and cognitive mechanisms of imagery function: cognitive general (strategies of play), cognitive specific (perfectly executed sport skills), motivational general-mastery (staying focused), motivational general-arousal (emotions accompanying performance), and motivation specific (goals and outcomes). Using the SIQ, Moritz et al. (1996) found that elite roller skaters who reported high self-confidence before competition used more motivational mastery and arousal imagery. Using the same questionnaire, Vadocz et al. (1997) proposed that motivational arousal imagery was a significant predictor of cognitive anxiety. The present study was designed to explore imagery use by high-level athletes from two different sports, artistic gymnastics and slalom canoeing. As survey measures might lack sensitivity or fail to identify critical variables, a qualitative research methodology was chosen to investigate imagery uses (Locke, 1989; Martens, 1987). Few studies have employed this kind of methodology to address imagery uses in sport. In-depth qualitative interviews have already been used to gain a deeper understanding of how elite athletes use psychological skills (Gould, EMund, & Jackson, 1992; Orlick & Partington, 1988), to determine athlete-defined sources of stress (Gould, Jackson, &Finch, 1993; Scanlan, Stein, & Ravizza, 1991), and to understand elite athletes' positive and negative experiences (Gould, Jackson, & Finch, 1993; Scanlan, Ravizza, & Stein, 1989). Our hope was that the rich data provided by a qualitative methodology would facilitate a greater understanding of how artistic gymnasts and slalom canoeists use imagery in competition, training, and other environments. This article reports how these individuals used such methods in various situations.

3 Participants Method Uses of Imagery 389 Participants were three members of the British Junior Canoe Slalom Team and three from the British Women's Artistic Gymnastics Team (two female and one male, and three females, respectively). These athletes were selected because differences were found between gymnastics and slalom-type tasks when performed using various types of imagery (White & Hardy, 1995). This suggested that the nature of motor skills involved in different sports might influence the type of images used. Thus, our hope was that any similarities or differences in the two groups' imagery uses would emerge from the present data analysis. Athletes (age 15-18) each had at least 2 years of international competition experience and averaged 6 years of competitive experience. Procedure All athletes volunteered to participate in live interviews (39-55 min), which were conducted in the athletes' training environment. Participants were asked the same series of standardized, open-ended questions, which were outlined in an interview guide.' Interviews were recorded using a Dictaphone and were later transcribed verbatim into 100 pages of text. Interview Guide Questions were arranged within the interview guide into the following sections: general uses of imagery, imagery training and instruction, details of competition imagery, details of imagery in training and other environments, and imagery effectiveness. An introductory section summarized the purpose of the interview and outlined the procedures. It also provided instructions to elicit the depth of detail required for each interview section. Participants' background information was obtained from a demographics section, followed by primary interest questions. The following definition of imagery was read aloud to participants prior to the open-ended questions about imagery use: Imagery is an experience that mimics real experience. We can be aware of "seeing" an image, feeling movements as an image, or experiencing an image of smell, tastes, or sounds without actually experiencing the real thing. Sometimes people find that it helps to close their eyes. It differs from dreams in that we are awake and conscious when we form an image. In the first interview section on general imagery use, athletes were asked to identify different situations in which they had used imagery and explain their reasons for using it. Participants were then asked to discuss any other issues that might enable us to understand how they used imagery. Throughout the entire interview, participants were asked general probes to ensure that all situations and reasons had been identified (e.g., "Can you remember any other occasions when you have used imagery?'). Where appropriate, 'Readers may receive a copy of the interview guide by contacting the first author.

4 390 Whiteand Hardy participants were asked more specific probes, which encouraged them to expand on their answers and allowed us to more fully understand their responses (e.g., "Does imagery help any aspects of your performance?"). All probes were standardized to control for interviewer bias and encourage participants to respond with similar detail. Data Preparation and Analysis Based on the interview structure and the nature of the information that athletes provided, quotes related to imagery use were extracted and used as raw data for the main analysis. A combination of inductive and deductive procedures was used to analyze the data, as recommended by Patton (1990) and adapted to sport by Gould et al. (1992) and Scanlan et al. (1989). We used an inductive procedure to generate a framework of imagery uses. Deductive processes were employed to extract data about imagery uses from content-related results (see White and Hardy, in preparation) and compare the two subgroups of athletes. We performed a hierarchical content analysis on the data. Tape recordings of the interviews were transcribed verbatim into 100 pages of text. Two researchers, one of them the interviewer, read the transcripts several times to become familiar with the text. Where appropriate, they also listened to the tapes to gather additional information (e.g., tone of voice). Each researcher then wrote an individual ideographic profile for each athlete. Joint profiles were constructed following discussion. Each investigator independently identified a set of raw data themes to characterize each athlete's responses about imagery use (Scanlan et d., 1989). The researchers then discussed the identified themes and came to a consensus about each one that would be used to analyze all six participants. Each raw data theme was written on a card. When disagreements occurred, the scripts were reread and discussed until a consensus was reached. Under a content analysis, the raw data themes were organized into categories using a combination of inductive and deductive approaches. For the inductive procedure, emergent higher order themes were developed by clustering raw data themes according to similar meaning. These clusters were labeled as in a factor analytic procedure (i.e., first order dimensions). A hierarchical structure was developed by identifying relationships between clusters of first order dimensions to establish second order ones. Consensus had to be reached on each higher order dimension. After these were identified, each descriptor was reread to ensure comprehensiveness and a coherent analysis. Both researchers reached a consensus on the overall structure of the analysis. An additional researcher performed a reliability check of the interpretative elements of the analysis by coding 20% of the quotes, selected randomly, into raw themes and first order dimensions and then categorizing all first order themes into second order ones (see Scanlan et al., 1989). The percentage of correctly coded quotes was 92% (23 of 25), and 100% of the first order dimensions were correctly coded into second order categories. Results Results are presented in the order of the analysis, such that the raw data themes and lower order dimensions are described first, followed by the emergent higher

5 Uses of Imagery 391 order themes. Situational and sport differences are also described where appropriate. Frequency counts are not included due to small participant numbers and the problem of misrepresenting the importance of imagery use to the individual. From 125 quotes and 43 subsequent raw data themes related to different imagery uses, 10 first and 3 second order dimensions were derived to form the general dimension, Uses of Imagery. First order data are described in terms of their composite raw data themes and then further illustrated using quotations. First Order Dimension: Use of Image y in Diflerent Situations Five raw data themes formed this first order dimension, which comprised 27 quotes about different situations in which imagery was used. All participants used imagery in competition and training situations. Canoeists used imagery before warmup on competition day when they were planning how to do a course: "I watched the other four runners and then walked the course, um, each section looking at it, watching the water and then thinking about how I was going to do it, imagining myself, watching myself do it." They also reported using imagery before they got onto the water for a warm-up ("I do one sitting in my boat before I get on.... I just go off to the side and do one there") and then as part of the warm-up ("In my warm-up, I always do a full run in my head"). They often used imagery immediately before a run: "Just 2 min before my run (I go) through sort of like down the course.... I go through the lines.... So if I'm sat properly, by the time I've finished, the next run's coming and I can go down." Canoeists also used imagery to review performance: "You do it afterwards to review mistakes." Gymnasts used imagery the day before competition, when they usually had a day off from training. They did not report using imagery before the warm-up, as they felt under pressure to use this time for physical practice: "Everything's a bit tense really, especially when you've only got 3 rnin to do your things and like everyone's trying to get on." Imagery was most frequently used immediately before competing on a piece: "just before, like when a girl was on the floor and I was next, just before I went on." However, it was also used after competing on an apparatus to refocus on the next routine ("like after each apparatus, thinking about the next one"). Another commented: "We had to wait until the rest... everyone had finished, so I was thinking of everything then." There were several similarities in the way that canoeists and gymnasts used imagery in training. It was most commonly employed in training sessions for rehearsing full runs or routines: "I use it for full runs in training." Another athlete commented: "Sometimes my coach will say to me, 'Lie down on the crash mat and think about, go through 10 beam routines."' Frequently, imagery was used for rehearsing difficult moves or movement patterns in training. All participants agreed that imagery was used much more in competition than in training: "I do use it in training, but not as much as I do in racing." Another commented: "In training, it's not used very often.... It's not as intense as in competition." Imagery was also used in a variety of different situations, including walking along the river bank, sitting on a bench, focusing on the hockey pitch to see ways around it, navigating around rooms when the light is out, spending time at school, in bed, or at home, even sitting on the toilet. Despite the diversity of situations in which imagery was used, none of the participants felt that they used imagery enough in training: "I don't use it to the extent of most people.... I don't use it to it's full potential."

6 392 White and Hardy First Order Dimension: Diflerences Between Competition and Training Image ry This first order dimension was associated with 7 raw data themes (14 quotes) that were related to the differences between imagery experiences in training and competition. Most of these raw data themes were reported by both gymnasts and canoeists. In general, the training situation was perceived as far more relaxed than competition. Thus, imagery was used less in a goal-directed way during training: "You'd have done a couple of runs before (imagery), where you just paddle around and you mess around." Generally, participants were less likely to feel anxious or emotional: "I wouldn't feel nervous in training." Another commented: "Sometimes I get stressed out, 'cos I'm having a bad day, but not as much as in comps." However, the more relaxed training environment had conflicting effects on two of the participants' imagery uses (one athlete from each sport). The gymnast felt that imagery enabled her to focus more during competition: "I'm more focused than I am in training.... I'm sort of clear in my mind in what I'm doing." However, the canoeist felt more focused in training: "I find that I can focus more in training than I can in competition." Yet another individual difference was mentioned by one canoeist, who stated that her images were more visual in training compared to competition: "I can feel the movements, but see them a lot more." Second Order Dimension: Uses of Imagery in Competition and Other Situations This second order dimension (see Figure 1) comprised the two first order categories (12 raw data themes and 41 quotations). In general, it reflected the variety of different situations in which imagery was used, such as at competitions, in training, at home, and in school. In addition, it illustrated the different nature of images in various situations, such as varying emotional and attentional states, and modalities. First Order Dimension: Image y Used to Acquire and Rehearse Skills and Strategies This category (8 raw data themes and 17 quotes) represented several different imagery uses, including learning and rehearsing skills in training. Imagery was used by gymnasts and slalom canoeists to "learn a new move" or "go over how to do a move" and for "training purposes... rehearsing skills." Imagery was also used for understanding moves in training (e.g., "to help get the timing and where each move comes"). Gymnasts used imagery for self-instruction in training situations: "I can understand what I am doing wrong, so I can help myself, instead of leaving it to the coach all the time." Reflecting the specific nature of slalom, canoeists used imagery to formulate and rehearse movement plans in training and competition situations: "In slalom you want to plan out what you are going to do.... You don't go down and do what you feel is right at the time." Furthermore, canoeists indicated that imagery had some functional equivalence to physical practice. They reported using imagery to get extra practice in training and competition situations: "Every time you do a full length imagery, then you are getting an extra practice run, so the more you do it, the more you practice the course."

7 Uses of Imagery 393 Raw Data Themes First Dimension Second Dimension Used more infprior to competition than in training Used in competition Used in training Used in a variety of placedsituations Feels should spend more time on imagery in training I Training imagery is less goal duected and focused than competition Physiological arousal level is lower in training than in competition before imagery Can focus more before imagery in training than in competition Feels less focused before imagery in training than in competition Feels less emotion during imagery in training than in competition Feels less anxious/nervous before imagery in training than in wmpetition Sees images more than feels them in rraining than in competition I se of imagely in - Differences between competition and training imagery \ Uses of imagery in competition and other situations / Figure 1 - Hierarchical structure of the second order dimension, Uses of Imagery in Competition and Other Situations. First Order Dimension: Image y Used to Perfect and Automate Skills This dimension emerged from 7 raw data themes and 12 quotes associated with using imagery to fine-tune movements and routines. Gymnasts used imagery to "help... perfect that move more" and "go through routines to make sure that they're perfect" in training and competition. This was achieved by focusing on specific performance details ("twisting in the right way or putting my feet in the right place" or "lifting my head or keeping my toes pointed). Gymnasts also used imagery for self-instruction in competition by reminding themselves of the minor details of performance when their coaches could not instruct them ("make sure that everything's right like my feet are pointed and I'm not scraggy,... I stand up all of my tumbles... then when I have finished my last tumble, to finish off the routine as well"). Another gymnast employed an interesting strategy of including instructions as an oral component to instruct herself: "My coach... can't shout at me when I'm in competition, so I imagine her shouting at me, so that I can do it properly.... so I can improve it and just get more marks." In contrast, slalom canoeists reported using imagery to automate their responses in competition and training: "I do it... so that on the run it just happens... because ultimately you want to be doing it subconsciously, just doing it really." One canoeist used imagery to focus specifically on emphasizing the speed of performance, hinting that this might enable her to use imagery for motivational purposes: "I do the imagery going fast, so that I know that if I am on the water, I can do it dead quick."

8 394 Whiteand Hardy First Order Dimension: Image y Used to Enhance Concentration and Avoid Distractions All participants used imagery to increase concentration in training (3 raw data themes and 9 quotes). For gymnasts, imagery was important to maintain concentration in training and therefore ensure some degree of success in performing the moves: "If I'm not 100% concentrating on what I am doing, then I know it's... pointless me doing it, I'm not gonna do it." This was particularly the case when there was a risk of injury while performing some moves: "It's to help me concentrate... so I don't do anything stupid, 'cos if I lose my concentration, I'd just hart myself." Canoeists found that imagery was useful to maintain concentration when practicing full-length runs and difficult moves in training. The objectives of such imagery were concentrating on visual features of the environment, such as "the water movement...just one part of the gate, the most important part" and orienting themselves relative to these features, such as "getting before the gates... getting the gate line." Participants used imagery to specifically enhance concentration in competition. One gymnast explained that it helped her think more clearly and "not get all worked up." One canoeist found that imagery helped her feel "switched on" and kept her "away from everybody." Thus, imagery prevented her from being disturbed or distracted by other people or events. First Order Dimension: Image y Used to Maintain Skills This dimension (2 raw data themes and 4 quotes) indicated that only gymnasts used imagery to maintain skills outside of competition or training environments. Gymnasts used imagery of their routines at home ("if you've got the day off'), although imagery was most commonly used in this way on the days before competition, when training was light. Gymnasts also used imagery to maintain skills when injured ("when I was in plaster, on my leg... like every day I was doing it then"). In this case, imagery was used "to keep the move and not to forget how to do it." First Order Dimension: Image y Used to Review and Adjust Past Performance Slalom canoeists and gymnasts used imagery to replay previous performances in training (2 raw data themes and 4 quotes). In such cases, imagery was used to restructure mistakes following a review: "I can think of myself, and try to stand the move myself and then I can understand what I am doing wrong." Only slalom canoeists used imagery to review and adjust performance in competition: "I would do it... afterwards to review mistakes. If I've messed up my first run, I know where I've messed up, then I just think it out, I just go through it so it's not a problem." Second Order Dimension: Cognitive Function of Image y This second order dimension (see Figure 2) emerged from 5 first order dimensions, 22 raw data themes, and 46 quotes, which all related to using imagery to mentally practice skills and routines. These themes were used to acquire and rehearse skills, perfect and automate them, enhance concentration and avoid distractions, maintain skills, and review and adjust past performance.

9 Usesof Imagery Raw Data Themes First Dimension Second Dimension Used to learn new skills in training Used to rehearse skills in training Used to formulate and rehearse a movement rehearse skills and Used to formulate and rehearse a movement plan in competition Used to understand moves in b.aining Used to get extra practice in competition Used to get extra practice in training Used to perfect skills and routines in competition Used to automate performance in competition Used to automate performance in training Used to self instruct in competition I 1 Used to isolate themselves from distrachii I - \ \, in competition Used to increase concentration in competition Used to increase concentration in training I and avoid distractions Used to maintain skills when out of training Used when injured Used to review past performance in competition Used to review past performance in training Figure 2 - Hierarchical structure of the second order dimension, Cognitive Function of Imagery. First Order Dimension: Image y Used to Enhance Mood and Reduce Anxiety L A collective of 4 raw data themes and 16 quotes formed this first order dimension. All slalom canoeists used imagery to create the right mood state for the slalom runs in training and competition. Terms used to describe the emotional effect imagery included "excited," "hyped-up," and "aggressive." These emotional effects were apparently associated with image content. Indeed, one canoeist emphasized the emotive content of her images by performing an "angry prep": Help psyche myself up... imagining myself you know, really putting a lot of effort in... really sort of concentrate on imaging myself aggressively sprinting... coming out of the gates and imagining myself really pulling hard on the bow rudder, really putting effort in on the sprints... and sort of really getting psyched up. In contrast, the images she used when performing a "mellow prep" were more mental-practice orientated: "My mellow preps are just running through it,

10 396 White and Hardy you know, with the physical bits... the muscles and that." This would have a different emotional state attached to it: "It would be quite relaxing to just go through it being mellow and going through it and getting it all right." Gymnasts predominantly used imagery to reduce anxiety in training and competition. In training situations, anxiety was associated with difficult moves, and imagery helped to "sort it out": "If you're scared of it, if you go through it in your head, then it will calm you down." In such situations, gymnasts believed that imagery would help them to perform difficult moves successfully: "Then you can actually do that move without falling... you're not scared of it." One gymnast would also feel anxious if she was not performing moves successfully in training, in which case she would use imagery for "reducing anxiety" (e.g., "getting angry with myself for like doing a certain move that doesn't stick all the time"). In addition to this, her coach would encourage her to use imagery if training wasn't going well in general: "If I'm having a really rubbish day then my coach will say like 'just go through it in your head,"' in which case imagery would help her "to relax... and not get psyched out about it... if it's not going right." Only one canoeist expressed that she might feel somewhat anxious in training if she was "getting stressed out about a move or a little anxious about hitting the first gate." In such situations, she indicated that seeing herself successfully performing the moves reduced her anxiety. All participants, with the exception of one canoeist, used imagery to handle competitive stress, "to calm down" or "to feel relaxed." However, the ability of imagery to influence anxiety was clearly linked to its controllability. Indeed, if the imagery did not involve a successful performance, it would increase the anxiety: "If you weren't in control of [the image], then it could just psyche you out more than anything else." However, imagery was not only used to reduce anxiety. One canoeist used imagery in competition to make her feel "more anxious": "Which is good... because you're ready you know, you want to get on and do it." In addition, imagery prevented her from having time to worry about her performance: "It brings you away and like you're not waiting, you're always doing something you - know, it's relevant to the competition." First Order Theme: Image y Used to Enhance Motivation and Self-confidence Gymnasts and canoeists used imagery to enhance motivation and selfconfidence in training and competition (4 raw data themes and 19 quotes). Irnagery made them feel more motivated ("especially before a competition when I go through the moves") or want to do their best. Several imagery strategies were used to enhance motivation in competition. One gymnast used imagery just before arriving at a competition, when experiencing "butterflies": "Like a load of energy that can burst at any minute.... If I do imagery it gives me more, so I've got adrenaline to sort of push it out." One canoeist recalled using imagery of previous or imaginary courses before a competition to "switch on" to a race: "It just makes me switch on to the competition and prime my body for a race and get the adrenaline going." Another canoeist used imagery from the previous year, when he had performed well: "I remember... getting up on the podium with the other two. So, I remembered that when I was going up there, and saying, 'I've got to do it again."'

11 Uses of Imagery 397 All participants used imagery to enhance self-confidence in training and competition. In training, imagery was used for difficult moves to enhance self-confidence: "If you're unsure about a move, the more times you go over it in your head, the more confident you feel." All athletes reported that the experience of success during imagery was crucial to improve self-confidence: "It just shows you what you want to see.... You've been there and you've done it in a way, you just know it's gonna be okay." However, if imagery was uncontrolled it had the opposite effect: "I would [feel confident] if it went well, but I wouldn't if it's not worked.... I wouldn't want to do the move if it went wrong." One gymnast found that using imagery when injured helped enhance her self-confidence upon returning to training: "I still knew I could do it, and it gave me more confidence." In competition, imagery functioned in the same way as in training to improve self-confidence: You know you can do it. As you go through it in your head you think, "I can do that in my head. I should be able to do that when I'm paddling."... It helps confidence, so you know you can do it because you've gone over it. Imagery for enhancing self-confidence in competition was also helpful for restructuring negative thoughts. One canoeist reported: "It gives me confidence because I don't go through it thinking 'I'm going to mess this up.'... It's always positive." This had an effect on athletes' expectations of the outcome: "Every time you are going over it in your head, you are going over the winning race in your head" (less ambitiously, "I know I'm not going to be last!"). First Order Dimension: Image y Used to Simulate Competition Two canoeists and one gymnast reported using imagery to simulate competition (1 raw data theme and 3 quotes). One canoeist used imagery to put pressure on himself: "to psyche myself up, so it is more under race conditions." To achieve this, imagery would be an integral part of training sessions, including full-course runs and time trials. "If you were doing competition simulation runs, it would actually be the preparation of the course in the imagery." The gymnast's coach regularly encouraged her to use imagery to simulate competition: "Concentrate as if you are actually doing it on the day, like you're doing it in the room." Second Order Dimension: Motivational Function of Image y This second order dimension (see Figure 3) comprised 4 first order themes related to using imagery for enhancing motivation, self-confidence, and affect; controlling anxiety; and simulating competition. The 3 first order dimensions were derived from 9 raw data themes and 38 quotes and served as imagery used to enhance mood and emotional control, increase motivation and self-confidence, and simulate competition. Third Order Dimension: Uses of Image y A total of 10 first order and 3 second order dimensions formed the third order dimension, Uses of Imagery. Figure 4 shows the structure in terms of first and second order dimensions.

12 398 Whiteand Hardy Raw Data Themes Fist Dimension Second Dimension Used to relax and reduce anxiety in training - Used to relax and reduce anxiety in competition - Used to enhance mood Used to enhance mood in competition and reduce anxiety Used to enhance mood in training Used to improve confidence in training Figure 3 -Hierarchical structure of the second order dimension, Motivational Function of Imagery. Fi Dimension Second Dimension Thud Dimension different situations Differences between competition and training imagery I Uses of imagery in competition and other situations rehearse skills and automate skills Cognitive function I \ concentration and avoid distractions skills Used to enhance mood and reduce anxiety - Motivational Used to enhance function of motivation and self confidence Used to simulate competition Figure 4 - Hierarchical structure of the third order dimension, Uses of Imagery.

13 Uses of Imagery 399 Discussion The qualitative interviews revealed a wide range of different imagery uses in training, competition, and other environments. Consistent with Paivio (1985), these uses reflected cognitive and motivational effects of imagery on performance and learning. In addition, a comparative dimension emerged from the data, raising several important issues in terms of imagery use in training and competition. Gymnasts and canoeists both reported using imagery for the cognitive function of mental rehearsal in training and competition. Imagery use was often determined by the particular demands of each sport. Using Paivio's (1985) terminology, gymnasts reported that imagery was used most frequently at the cognitive specific level to rehearse skills and difficult moves in training and competition. In these cases, imagery was used to understand the technical demands or perfect specific details of movement skills. In contrast, slalom canoeing required imagery use at a cognitive specific level to rehearse difficult moves, and at a general one to formulate and rehearse potential movement plans through slalom courses. Athletes frequently reported using imagery to enhance concentration, and thereby quality, in training. The role of imagery to enhance training quality has been reported (Orlick & Partington, 1988). In the current study, athletes used imagery during competition to improve concentration by blocking out distractions and to review past performance. The specific task-demand differences of slalom canoeing and gymnastics might explain why canoeists, but not gymnasts, reported using imagery to review competitive performance. In competition, slalom canoeists attempt several runs down the same course (1 practice and 2 competition runs). Because only the fastest and "cleanest" run counts in competition, reviewing enables the canoeist to correct mistakes made on the practice and first competition runs, thereby improving performance on the second attempt. In contrast, gymnasts only get one shot at each routine, so imagery has a more important role before performance. However, imagery was used by athletes from both sports in training situations to rehearse skills, routines, or courses. Canoeists noted that they used imagery to improve performance automation in competition and training situations. This was particularly interesting, since, as Paivio (1985) noted, imagery might interfere with automatic processing by requiring the performer to consciously focus on aspects of performance at the wrong time. However, one could counter this suggestion by arguing that visual imagery relies primarily on implicit knowledge. Recently, imagery has been described as an "action-language bridge," whereby verbal instruction can be translated into action, or action described verbally (Annett, 1996). Canoeists often talked of using imagery as soon as they knew the layout of a course, to plan and sequence performance responses (i.e., translating verbal instruction into procedural knowledge for action). Further mental practice might refine the image, such that responses would become implicit and automatic. Thus, imagery was used specifically to improve automatic functioning. This interpretation was supported by the fact that canoeists equated imagery with extra physical practice runs, illustrating their belief that mental rehearsal would improve their automation in a way similar to that of physical practice. Another interesting point was one gymnast's reported use of verbal instructions (i.e., coach's voice) during imagery. She indicated that this served a useful role during training because it reminded her of key performance aspects and enabled

14 400 Whiteand Hardy her to instruct herself in her coach's absence during training and competition. However, encouraging athletes to consciously focus on the performance process can have a detrimental effect during competition because controlled processing does not contain information essential to coordination (Boutcher, 1992). Studies on the effects of stress on motor skills have shown that performance is disrupted under stressful conditions, when performers rely on explicit knowledge (Hardy, Mullen, & Jones, 1996; Masters, 1992). Thus, relying on verbal cues when anxious will probably be detrimental to performance. The motivational function of imagery was featured strongly in all the interviews. This is consistent with recent research on elite athletes' use of motivational imagery (Hall et al., 1990; Moritz et al., 1996; Salmon et al., 1994). Imagery was reported as enhancing motivation in several ways, representing both dimensions proposed by Paivio (1985). At a general motivational level, it was used as an energizing strategy for moves requiring bursts of energy and as a technique to enhance mood or reduce anxiety. At a specific level, athletes used images of receiving medals and achieving a top-class performance. All athletes reported using imagery to improve self-confidence. This was particularly important if there was a degree of uncertainty about performance outcome, such as when a move was perceived to be difficult, in the absence of physical training after an injury, or under the stressful conditions of competition. The effectiveness of imagery in enhancing self-confidence was apparently mediated by the successful nature of the image, which supports the view that imagery enables the athlete to gain vicarious or imagined experience (Maddux, 1995). If the imaged performance was unsuccessful, the information supplied by the image would be negative and would therefore decrease self-efficacy (Woolfolk, Parrish, & Murphy, 1985). The influence of imagery controllability on self-confidence highlights the importance of imagery practice and the potential dangers of using uncontrolled imagery. In competition, imagery was also frequently used to enhance motivation and mood, as indicated by previous research (Moritz et al., 1996; Salmon et al., 1994). Canoeists used imagery to feel more "aggressive" and "hyped-up'' and thus create an appropriate mood state for actual performance. Gymnasts did not use imagery in this way, which suggests that this mood state would not be appropriate for gymnastics. Gymnasts and canoeists both reported using imagery to control anxiety in competition and when performing difficult moves in training. Only half of the sample reported using imagery to simulate competition in training. This is perhaps due to the relaxed nature of training and a lack of encouragement from coaches. However, those who did report using it in this way suggested that simulating the competition enabled them to practice skills and movement patterns under emotional conditions similar to those during competition. This indicates the potential benefits of using imagery to enhance the quality of simulation training (Jones & Hardy, 1990; Orlick & Partington, 1988). Consistent with previous literature (Hall et al., 1990; Salmon et al., 1994), all participants used imagery more in competition than in training. Athletes were clearly encouraged by their coaches to use imagery for specific purposes. Coach encouragement largely affected whether imagery was being used outside of training, before competitions, or when injured. In addition, all athletes reported that imagery was an important part of their psychological preparation and that more time should be spent on imagery in training. This emphasizes the need for more

15 Uses of Imagery 401 coach and athlete education about the use and function of imagery (Jowdy, Murphy, & Durtschi, 1989). Furthermore, sport psychologists should provide education and support services that enable coaches and athletes to integrate imagery skills into training and competition programs. The differences in imagery use ingymnastics and slalom canoeing suggest that sport psychologists should have a good understanding of the demands imposed on the performer by the sport so that they can make recommendations about how imagery could be applied to different sport situations (e.g., using imagery to perfect skills and routines in gymnastics &d automate performance in canoe slalom). The efficacy of sport psychology consultation can be enhanced by accessing the athlete's experiences and terminology (Butler, Smith & Irwin, 1993; Gould, Tammen, Murphy, & May, 1989). Imagery researchers have also stressed the importance of understanding the individual, dynamic nature of imagery experiences (Ahsen, 1984). The current study suggests that the use and effect of an image might depend on its content (e.g., visual and aural components) or controllability. Some athletes emphasized image components (e.g., verbal cues) to enhance the effects of their image. Thus, sport psychologists should work with individuals to establish a detailed account of their imagery use and experience in different sport situations. Gaining insight into the meaning of images from the athlete's perspective would enable the sport psychologist to provide athletes with advice and support more effectively and facilitate more creative uses of imagery that are tailored to the individual. Future research should address such issues and explore athletes' imagery use and content in other sports. References Ahsen, A. (1984). ISM: The triple code model for imagery and psychophysiology. Journal of Mental Imagery, 8, Ainscoe, M., & Hardy, L. (1987). Cognitive warm-up in a cyclical gymnastic skill. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 18, Annett, J. (1996). On knowing how to do things: A theory of motor imagery. Cognitive Brain Research, 3, Boutcher, S.H. (1992). Attention and athletic performance: An integrated approach. In T.S. Horn (Ed.), Advances in sport psychology (pp ). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Butler, R.J., Smith, M., & Irwin, I. (1993). The performance profile in practice. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 5, Davidson, R.J., & Schwartz, D. (1976). Psychobiology of relaxation and related states. In D. Mostofsky (Ed.), Behavioral modification and control of physiological activity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Gould, D., Eklund, R.C., & Jackson, S.A. (1992) U.S. Olympic wrestling excellence: I. Mental preparation, precompetitive cognition and affect. The Sport Psychologist, 6, Gould, D., Jackson, S.A., & Finch, L. (1993). Sources of stress in national champion figure skaters. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 15, Gould, D., Tammen, V., Murphy, S., & May, J. (1989). An examination of U.S. Olympic sport psychology consultants and the services they provide. The Sport Psychologist, 3,

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17 Uses of Imagery 403 White, A., & Hardy, L. (1998). What's in an image? An examination of image content and its influence on the use of imagery by high level artistic gymnasts and high level slalom canoeists. Manuscript in preparation. Woolfolk, R.L., Parrish, W., & Murphy, S.M. (1985). The effects of positive and negative imagery on motor skill performance. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 9, Manuscript submitted: July 23, 1997 Revision received: April 16, I998