Reexamining Media Capacity Theories using Workplace Instant Messaging

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1 Reexamining Media Capacity Theories using Workplace Instant Messaging Yu-Ting Caisy Hung Department of Information Systems School of Computing National University of Singapore Wei-Chang Kong Department of Information Systems School of Computing National University of Singapore Ai-Ling Chua Department of Information Systems School of Computing National University of Singapore Clyde Eirikur Hull Department of Management College of Business Rochester Institution of Technology Abstract This study empirically examines the general propositions of media capacity theories using a newer and increasing popular communication medium: Instant Messaging. We developed hypotheses based on the proposition that synchronous communication media would be perceived to be more effective for convergence communication and asynchronous communication media would be perceived to be more suitable for conveyance communication. These hypotheses were tested using data collected from 81 IM users in four organizations by means of survey instruments developed for this study. The results suggested that although IM was perceived to be a highly synchronous communication medium, it was not perceived to be as effective for convergence communication as for conveyance communication. These results challenge the general propositions of media capacity theories. Implications of the findings are discussed. 1. Introduction New information and communication technologies (ICTs) such as Instant Messaging (IM) keep evolving and finding new applications in organizational communications. IM, a near-synchronous one-to-one text-based communication medium, although originally intended to allow home internet users to communicate with family and friends [14], has been extensively adopted in workplaces [28]; [31] to support informal communication [29]; [32]; [33]. This new application of IM has provoked many studies and discussions regarding how and when IM is used and adopted, which features are used for what purposes, and the nature of the unintended consequences of IM use in workplaces [3]; [19]; [29]. Unique characteristics of IM use such as multitasking [3]; [19]; [29] have been observed, challenging traditional communication theories [30]. The task-technology fit (TTF) framework, proposing a match between ICT characteristics and task characteristics, has been applied to communication in order to prescribe effective use of communication media. Communication theories based on the TTF framework, including media capacity theories, have provided great insights into media selection, ICT adoption and use, and ICT-mediated communications. Media capacity theories state that effective communication is more likely to be achieved by matching media characteristics with communication tasks. Specifically, media synchronicity theory (MST) argues that individuals would prefer highly synchronized communication media for convergence communication and less synchronized media for conveyance communication [12]. IM, a nearsynchronized communication medium, is mainly used for informal communication involving quick questions, clarifications, or keeping in touch [29]. This seems to be contradictory to MST s proposition. On the other hand, IM was also found to be used for complex work discussions [19], which is consistent with the theory s proposition. Are these contradictory observations caused by the level of familiarity between the communication partners [4]; [12]? The main objective of this study is to empirically examine the general propositions of media capacity theories using IM. 2. Task-Technology Fit (TTF) in Communication: Media Capacity Theories The TTF framework, focusing on the notion of matching technology characteristics with task characteristics, has been widely applied to explain and prescribe the use of information and communication /06/$20.00 (C) 2006 IEEE 1

2 technology (ICT) for effective organizational communication and collaboration (e.g., [15]; [37]; [47]). TTF, as applied to communication, stresses the fit between the message sender s communication intentions or goals and the communication medium s characteristics. Daft and Lengel [7] view task-related communication as a process of information exchange and processing, and argue that a communication action is initiated either to reduce information uncertainty by providing information or to clarify ambiguous issues and reduce information equivocality (multiple information explanations). This notion is in line with Dennis and Valacich s [12] argument that, regardless of the nature of the task, individuals working together perform two fundamental processes: conveyance and convergence. The conveyance of task-related information focuses on the dissemination of a diversity of information from many sources in order to share and obtain as much relevant information as possible for understanding the situation [12]. Communication partners do not actively engage in disagreements or qualifications of each other s contributions [12]; [34]. Conversely, the convergence of task-related information focuses on aligning various interpretations of shared information to reach a common understanding and to mutually agree that they have achieved this understanding. It often involves critical examination of each other s messages and the resolution of disagreements [12]; [34]. McGrath [23]; [24] argues that a group performs three simultaneous functions as it works: the production function (i.e., the performance of the task), the group well-being function (i.e., coordination among team members as a group), and member support function (i.e., individual relationships with others). Therefore, in addition to task-related communications, people who work together also communicate to support group well-being and individual members. Group well-being emphasizes the contributions made to the group itself as an intact and continuing social structure [23]; [24]. In typical business environments, for individuals working together in concert on a project, communication concerning group well-being often involves project management communication such as establishing operating procedures and how the group will proceed. Individuals working together also communicate to manage their interpersonal relationships. Communication pertaining to member support often involves social/relational information not germane to the focal task [24]; [26]; [44]. Although not directly related to the performance of the focal task, social/relational interactions have been found to be associated with positive outcomes, including better decision quality and higher satisfaction [43]; [5]. In sum, a communication act is initiated to convey taskrelated information, to converge meanings on taskrelated information, to manage the projects, or for social/relational purposes. Theories in ICT-mediated communication research often describe communication media in terms of their objective characteristics (assumed to be invariant across users and context of use), and hence can be categorized as media capacity theories. Media capacity theories state that media capabilities supporting the processing of information vary along dimensions such as media richness (the capacity of the media to convey verbal/nonverbal cues and facilitate shared meaning in a timely manner) [9] and social presence (the degree to which individuals feel close) [38]. Media capability is based on the combination and configuration of various features such as immediate feedback, multiple cues, language variety [9], interactivity [46]; [40], multiple addressability [35], and editability [35]. Synthesizing and extending prior research, Dennis and Valacich [12] identified five media features that influence the effectiveness and efficiency of communication and subsequent information processing. These features include immediacy of feedback (the extent to which a medium enables rapid bi-directional communication), symbol variety (the number of ways a medium allows information to be encoded for communication), parallelism (the number of simultaneous conversations that can effectively take place), rehearsability (the extent to which the medium enables the sender to rehearse and fine tune a message before sending it), and reprocessability (the extent to which a message can be reexamined or processed again within the context of the communication event). Building upon Media Richness Theory s (MRT s) proposition that for effective communication to occur, the richness of the medium should match with the level of message ambiguity [9], Dennis and Valacich [12] proposed their theory of Media Synchronicity in order to further refine the fit. In addition to the fit between communication media characteristics and communication goals, their theory adds the additional dimension of McGrath s [23]; [24] group functions: production, group well-being, and member support. In brief, media synchronicity theory (MST) suggests that communication effectiveness will be enhanced when certain features of the communication media match with or support the level of synchronous activity necessary to perform conveyance or convergence communication processes for the completion of production, member support, and group well-being functions. In general, media with low synchronicity (low immediacy of feedback and high parallelism) are preferred for communication in which conveyance is 2

3 the goal, while media with high synchronicity (high immediacy of feedback and low parallelism) are preferred for communication when convergence is the goal. Communication is more effective if the communication medium is selected based on the communication goals pertaining to the group functions. Although these theories provided significant value in enhancing the design, development, and use of ICTs for supporting communication, empirical tests of these theories have not provided consistent support, especially with respect to newer ICTs (e.g., [21]; [45]; [11]). The assumptions about communication under traditional media theories have been challenged in IM communications [29]. Hence, we believe that there is a need to reexamine and test the TTF notion in media capacity theories using this now increasingly-popular communication medium: Instant Messaging. The follow section reviews prior studies of IM features and use. 3. Instant Messaging (IM) Functions and Uses IM systems allow near-synchronous one-to-one textbased communication [29]. Similar to telephones, IM systems are based on a dyadic call model [29], and similar to chat, IM systems provides users a near-realtime text-based communication environment [3]; [29]. Even with these similarities, IM is unique in that it provides awareness information about potential communication partners [3]; [29] and that users often have certain levels of controls over what can be seen by others [29]. Prior IM studies suggest that IM is mainly used to support informal communication that is impromptu, brief, and context-rich [3]; [29]; [19]. IM is reported to be used mainly for four functions including quick questions and clarification, coordination and the scheduling of work tasks, coordinating impromptu social meetings, and keeping in touch with friends and family [29]. However, with the increasing use of IM in the workplace, it is also reported that workplace IM is primarily used for complex work discussions [19]; [29]. It was also found that users show different patterns of use depending on their intensity of use and their experience with a communication partner [19]; [29], and that multitasking is quite common among users using IM [3]. 4. Research Hypotheses Although it is acknowledged that a communication medium may possess different levels of capability depending on how it is configured and used [12]; [4], IM is normally viewed as a synchronous or nearsynchronous communication medium [3]; [29]. According to MST, media synchronicity is defined as the extent to which individuals [work] together on the same activity at the same time; i.e., have a shared focus ([12], p.5). High synchronicity is often associated with high immediacy of feedback and low parallelism, while low synchronicity is often associated with low immediacy of feedback and high parallelism. IM is normally considered a medium with low to medium symbol variety, medium to high immediacy of feedback, low to medium rehearsability and reprocessability, and low to medium parallelism [22]. Symbol variety, rehearsability, and reprocessability were proposed by MST to be valuable for both conveyance and convergence communication [9]. Hence, the perceived capacity of a medium in conveyance and convergence communication is mainly determined by its synchronicity (i.e., its immediacy of feedback and its parallelism). IM can be described as a communication medium with medium to high synchronicity. The task-technology fit notion described in media capacity theories is further developed in the MST in which the fit among three dimensions are addressed: communication media characteristics, communication tasks, and group functions [12]. Categorizing IM as a communication medium with medium to high synchronicity, we developed our hypotheses based on the key MST proposition that individuals would prefer a communication medium with low synchronicity for conveyance communication and a communication medium with high synchronicity for convergence communication. The communication tasks associated with the group functions include conveyance and convergence communication for both production and social (member support) functions and communication for project management (group well-being). For production and social communication, it is hypothesized that: H1 Individuals will perceive IM to be more effective for production convergence communication than for production conveyance communication. Individuals will perceive IM to be more effective for social convergence communication than for social conveyance communication. Although, theoretically, project management H2 communication should include both conveyance and convergence communication, it is difficult to distinguish them in practice. Communication for managing projects such as assigning responsibilities, 3

4 coordinating activities, and scheduling tend to be shorter, less complex, and less likely to involve multiple interpretations. Therefore, we treated project communication as one single communication task that involves mostly conveyance communication. IM studies also reported that one main use of IM communication is coordinating and scheduling work tasks and social meetings [29]; [29]. Therefore, we hypothesize that: H3 Individuals will perceive IM to be effective for project management communication. In addition to predicting a fit among the three dimensions, MST also proposes that the levels of media synchronicity required for effective communication will decrease as users gain communication experience with each other [12]; [10]. Prior studies in ICT-mediated communication have shown that with different levels of experience, individuals interact differently [20]; [25]; [27]; [36] due to different levels of established communication norms [1][26][41][42]. IM studies also report that IM users demonstrate different patterns of use between heavy users and light users [19][29]. It was found that heavy IM users tend to have many fast-paced short interactions while light users tend to have longer and slower interactions [19]. This indicated that light users who might be less experienced in using IM may take spend more time to achieve the same level of communication effectiveness. Muller, et al. [29] also observed that as users gain IM experience with each other, their chat behaviors develop. Therefore, we believe that experienced IM pairs will perceive IM to be more effective than newly formed IM pairs. That is: H4 Individuals will perceive IM to be more effective for communications with partners with whom they have greater IM experience than for communication with partners with whom they have less IM experience. 5. Methodology The hypotheses were tested using data collected in four multinational organizations through an online survey web site. Survey items developed based on prior studies in ICT-mediated communication [18] and in IM functions and use [29] were used to measure respondents perceived communication effectiveness of using IM for production and social (non-work) conveyance communication (PVEY and SVEY), production and social (non-work) convergence communication (PVGE and SVGE), and project management (PM). Respondents were asked to answer with respect to communicating with a communication partner with whom they had been IM-ing for a while as well as with one with whom they had just started IMing. These items were pilot tested in the same online environment with 78 college students at a major university in Singapore and a major university in northeast America. The results and comments from the pilot studies were used to revise and shorten that questionnaire, resulting in a total of 53 questions in addition to those for collecting demographic information. A 5-point Likert-type scale (1= Strong Disagree, 3= Neutral, and 5= Strong Agree ) was used for all non-demographical items. 5.1 Respondents The URL of the online survey web site along with a brief description of the purpose of the study was distributed to employees working in the information technology departments of an international banking corporation headquartered in the United Kingdom, a petroleum refinery headquartered in the Netherlands, and a petrochemical corporation and a management and IT consultancy headquartered in the United States. A total of 81 useable responses were collected within a two-week period. 50.6% of the respondents were male and the largest groups of users were in the age range of (33.9%), had 6-15 years of work experience (58.02%), and were college degree holders (46.91%). A wide variety of IM systems were used in these organizations, including America Online Instant Messaging (AIM), ICQ, Yahoo! Messenger, MindAlign, and MSN/Windows Messenger. Among these systems, MSN/Windows Messenger was the most widely used. Pure text and emoticons were the main features used in their IM communications. Other features such as NetMeeting, Webcams, or group conversation were seldom used. 74.1% of our respondents used IM everyday and 13.6% used IM 2-3 times a week. 5.2 Questionnaire Validations Items measuring the perceived communication effectiveness of IM for the four communication tasks were aggregated to form each construct. They were then validated using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) based on Maximum Likelihood extraction method with Promax rotations. Promax rotations were used due to the assumption that these constructs were correlated [17]. Based on the results, one item was excluded from further analysis due to its unsatisfactory loading (a loading less than.5). The remaining items were then assessed using a correlation matrix. High correlations were observed between items measuring a construct, indicating convergent validity. Correlations between items measuring different constructs were 4

5 lower than those measuring the same construct, indicating discriminate validity. Scale reliabilities were then tested using Cronbach s α. All constructs had reliabilities greater than.9. The results, summarized in Table 1, show that the constructs have good validity and high reliabilities. Table 1. Factor Loadings and Reliabilities (Factor loadings of less than 0.3 were suppressed.) Factors PVEY PVGE PM SVEY SVGE 1. Effectively express work opinions Easily clarify work-related questions Clearly explain work-related information Effectively remind colleagues work-related matters Easily schedule work-related meetings Effectively arrange work-related assignments Easily plan project schedules Effectively report current task status Effectively debate work-related issues Effectively resolve disagreements on work-related issues Effectively reach a solution to a work-related problem Effectively keep in touch with friends and family Effectively exchange social information Easily make social appointment with friends and family Effectively remind friends and family social-related matters Effectively resolve differences in opinions Effectively reach a solution on social matters Effectively debate non-work related issues.769 Reliabilities (Cronbach s α).912 (Item 4 exclude d) The factor loading larger than 1 was a result of Promax rotation when performing the factor analysis. 6. Analysis and Results 6.1 Perceived IM Media Capabilities To validate that IM was indeed perceived as a highly synchronous communication medium, respondents were asked to assess its synchronicity and its five media characteristics: immediacy of feedback, parallelism, symbol variety, rehearsability, and reprocessability. T-tests were used to examine their perceived IM capabilities in these dimensions. The results indicated that IM was perceived to be high (i.e., significantly greater than 3= Neutral ) on all dimensions except for reprocessability (Table 2.). It is interesting to note that although high media synchronicity should be associated with high immediacy of feedback and low parallelism [12], our respondents perceived IM to be both high on immediacy of feedback (Item#1) and high on parallelism (Item#3). It might be the case that our respondents felt they could effective manage and carry out IM conversations in multiple IM sessions simultaneously. However, they did perceive IM to be highly synchronized (Item#7). This indicated that IM was indeed perceived as a communication medium with high media synchronicity, supporting our categorization of IM as a synchronized or nearsynchronized communication medium. Table 2. Perceived IM Media Capabilities Item N Mean T-Value (Sig.) 1. IM allows me to get timely feedback from my communication partner (.000) 2. IM provides me a set of symbols I need for effective communication (.000) 3. IM allows me to effectively manage multiple conversations simultaneously (.000) 4. IM allows me to take the time to carefully edit my message before sending it out (.011) 5. When using IM, I do not feel pressed to send out my messages before careful editing (.000) 6. IM allows me to keep records of my IM messages for future reference (.330) 7. IM allows me to carry out concurrent communication with my communication partner (.000) 5

6 6.2 IM Experience with a Communication Partner As mentioned above, in order to validate that our respondents were able to distinguish their evaluation of IM communication with experienced IM partners from communication with new IM partners, we asked them to respond to questions regarding their use of IM both with a person with whom they have been IM-ing for a while and with one with whom they just started IM-ing. Pair-wise comparisons were carried out to see if our respondents indeed behave differently according to the level of IM experience with a communication partner (Table 3). It was found that when IM-ing with a longstanding communication partner, one knows when the best time is to contact the partner, is less worried about causing interruptions, is more likely to use abbreviations, and spends less effort in editing the messages. However, there was no significant difference in whether they felt pressed to respond to an IM call. The results indicated that, consistent with prior IM studies [19]; [29], users show different IM behaviors when communicating with a longstanding IM partner and with a new IM partner. Table 3. IM Behavior & IM Partnership IM Behavior Experience with the IM Partner (N) Mean T- Value (Sig.) Best Time to Experienced (81) Contact New (81) 2.99 Pressed to Respond Experienced (80) 3.18 New (80) 3.11 Worried about Experienced (80) 2.50 Causing Interruption New (80) 3.01 Use Abbreviations Experienced (80) 3.80 New (80) 3.41 Carefully Editing Experienced (81) 3.47 IM Messages New (81) Hypothesis Testing (.000).672 (.504) (.000) (.000) (.026) Hypotheses 1, 2, and 4 were tested using a Simultaneous Repeated Measures ANOVA [39] with Experience with the IM Partners as the betweensubject factor and the five communication tasks as the within-subject factor. The between-subject factor was treated as a simultaneous administration of two research conditions: longstanding parter and new partner [39]. As the homogeneity of variance assumption is violated in repeated measures designs, an additional assumption of sphericity (or circularity) was first tested. A more conservative F-value (Greenhouse-Geisser F-Value) is used when the assumption is violated [16]. Hypotheses 1 and 2 state that individuals will perceive IM to be more effective for production and social convergence communication than for production and social conveyance communication. The results indicated that there was a significant within-subject effect on the five communication tasks (F-Value=32.976, Sig.=.000). Bonferroni post-hoc pair-wise comparisons indicated that individuals perceived IM to be significantly more effective for production conveyance communication than for production convergence communication (Mean Difference=.519, Sig.=.000) and more effective for social conveyance communication than for social convergence communication (Mean Difference=.602, Sig.=.000). That is, the differences were statistically significant in the opposite direction of the hypotheses. Hypotheses 1 and 2 are not supported. Hypothesis 4 states that individuals will perceive IM to be more effective for communication with partners with whom they have greater IM experience than for communication with partners with whom they have less IM experience. No significant between-subject effect was found (F-Value=1.272, Sig=.261). That is, although individuals reported that they behave differently with IM partners with whom they have been IM-ing for a while than they do with whom they just started IM-ing, they did not perceive any significant difference in IM communication effectiveness. The estimated effect size (η 2 p ) is.008, and the observed power is.201. This hypothesis was further examined using pair-wise comparison t-tests on the five communication tasks. The results indicated that IM was perceived to be more effective for production and social conveyance communication with communication partners with whom one has been IM-ing for a while than with new communication partners (T-value=3.341, Sig.=.001 for Production Conveyance; T-value=3.234, Sig.=.002 for Social Conveyance). IM was perceived to be more effective for project management with experienced IM partners than with new partners (T- Value=2.123, Sig.=.037). No significant difference was found between the two groups for either production or social convergence communication. Hypothesis 4 is partially supported. There was no interaction effect between communication tasks and levels of communication experience with an IM partner (F-Value=.858, Sig.=.441). Hypothesis 3 states that individuals will perceive IM to be effective for project management communication. It was tested using T-tests on perceived IM effectiveness for both experienced and new partners. The results indicated that individuals 6

7 perceived IM to be effective for project management with those with whom they have been IM-ing for a while (T-Value=3.651, Sig.=.000) but do not perceive IM to be effective for project management with those with whom they just started IM-ing (T-Value=1.552, Sig.=.132). Hypothesis 3 is partially supported. 7. Discussions and Conclusions 7.1 Discussion of Results Our data indicated that although IM was considered a highly synchronous communication medium, it was not considered as effective for convergence communication as for conveyance communication. This finding does not support the prediction of media capacity theories in general, and MST in specific, that synchronous communication media will be more effective for convergence communication than for conveyance communication. This finding, however, is consistent with findings from prior IM studies that IM is mainly used for short, simple, and quick communications [3]; [29]; [19]; [29]. This finding suggests that the use and perceptions of a communication medium may be influenced by how it was used and perceived before they were introduced to the workplace. IM was originally designed for real-time short text-based message exchange and was intended to allow home Internet users to communicate with family and friends [14]. Although IM is now better developed to include many other features such as emoticons and is used in many workplaces for work-related communication, individuals may still associate IM with the attributes of informal, short, and text-based. Hence, IM users may rely on these perceptions of IM when assessing when to use IM for what purposes. This may explain why IM is perceived to be more effective for conveyance communication, even though it is capable of supporting effective convergence communication. The level of communication experience with a communication partner seemed to influence perceived IM communication effectiveness for some communication tasks. IM was perceived to be more effective for conveyance communication (both production and social) and project management with a communication partner with whom one has been IMing for a while than with a new communication partner. This is in consistent with MST [12] and channel expansion theory [4] that media perceptions change as one gains experience with the ICT and the communication partner. The exception was for convergence communication. Although IM was perceived to be more effective for convergence communication as one gains experience [19], the increase was not statistically significant. As IM has been observed to be used for complicated work discussions, it may be the case that our respondents have not yet passed the threshold to sense the difference. Social influence, as depicted in social network theories may be used to explain the influence of IM partnerships on the use and perceptions of IM in a workplace. Two network models have been proposed to describe the social influence process the relational model (also known as cohesion) and the positional model (also known as structural equivalence) [2]; [7]. The relational model posits that social influence operates via the mechanisms of cohesion and solidarity. Individuals are said to be influenced by relationships with others, or by people with whom the individual has direct interactions and enjoys close social proximity [2]; [6]. The positional model suggests that individuals pay attention to people who occupy positions similar to theirs in the informal social structure positionally similar others (PSOs). In order to maintain an equal or even superior standing with their PSOs, individuals may use PSOs as social referents and behave in a similar manner [13]. In other words, the relational ties or the identification of PSOs act as referents of individuals behaviors. Regardless of whether the social influence is exploited through the relational model or through the positional model, the use and perception of IM in workplaces may be socially engineered. Hence, under the influence of their communication partners, individuals may gradually develop a perception of how IM should be used. Project management communication often involves both conveyance and convergence [12]. However, our factor analysis shows that project management communication was distinct from production and social conveyance and convergence communication. Our results indicate that IM was considered to be effective for project management communication, such as sending reminders, reporting task status, and setting up appointments. This finding is consistent with prior IM studies [3]; [29]; [19]; [29]. 7.2 Implications One of the interesting challenges of research on technology is that technology itself is a moving target. The results indicate that IM, a relatively new form of ICT, does conform in some respects to the predictions of media capacity theories. However, and of greater interest, this newer form of ICT does not perfectly fit the theoretical model. In the light of the inconclusive 7

8 results obtained to date for media capacity theories in general, and, with the findings of this paper and that of DeLuca and Valacich [10], MST in specific, we feel that a theoretical adjustment is called for. The theoretical adjustments needed to accommodate IM are not large, but we must recognize that as technology continues to evolve, further theoretical revisions will be required unless we adjust our theories to accommodate both the current state of media technologies and the arc of technological evolution indicated by, for example, this study s findings. Media characteristics that have traditionally been mutually exclusive may coexist in some future ICT in no way invalidating the basic premise of MST, but dramatically affecting its ramifications and application to real organizations and people. In addition, our findings also suggested that the use and perceptions of a communication medium seems to be greatly influenced by users prior perceptions of the medium as well as by their social networks. Thus, the assessment of a communication medium regarding its use needs to incorporate social factors, such as socially established perceptions of the medium in addition to utility factors including the fit between media characteristics and communication purposes. 7.3 Limitations and Future Directions One limitation of this study is that the data were obtained entirely from primary sources by means of a survey. We used this approach because our variables of interest were perceptual, and thus unavailable through secondary sources. However, a study incorporating our approach with secondary data might shed further insight. A study of work-related IM perceptions across multiple organizations with different characteristics and tasks, for example, could illustrate how the subjective perceptions central to this study are affected by organizational and external factors. Another limitation of this study is that we studied IM in isolation. This may reduce the generalizability of our findings. The availability and use of other communication media may influence how IM is perceived along many dimensions. IM is often used in conjunction with other media, such as the telephone, and this unusual relationship with other media is certainly deserving of further investigation. Time is another limiting factor. Our data was collected at one time, rather than over an extended period of time. A related issue has to do with the order in which users have been introduced to the media in question. Users perceptions of one communication medium may be colored possibly very strongly by their experiences with other media, particularly media with similar characteristics. A valuable potential study might look at IM and similar communication media over time, with a focus on the transitions among them and user perceptions of usability over time. 7.4 Conclusions This study reexamined and tested the TTF notion proposed by MST on a relatively new ICT IM. The support for the theories was mixed. Contrary to the theories prediction, IM, as a highly synchronous communication medium, is not considered to be as effective for convergence communication as for conveyance communication. IM is perceived to be effective for project management communication. As one gains communication experience with an IM partner, his or her perceived IM effectiveness for conveyance and project management communication increases. However, this increase is not significant for convergence communication. The results call for further refinement of media capacity theories in general, and media synchronicity theory in specific. 8. References [1] Burke, K. and Chidambaram, L., How Much Bandwidth is Enough? A Longitudinal Examination of Media Characteristics and Group Outcomes, MIS Quarterly, 23:4, December 1999, [2] Burkhardt, M.E., Social Interaction Effects following a Technological Change: A Longitudinal Perspective, Academy of Management Journal, 37, p [3] Cameron, A.F. and Webster, J., Unintended Consequences of Emerging Communication Technologies: Instant Messaging in the Workplace, Computers in Human Behavior, 21:1, January 2005, [4] Carlson, J.R. and Zmud, R.W., Channel Expansion Theory and the Experiential Nature of Media Richness Perceptions, Academy of Management Journal, 42:2, 1999, [5] Chidambaram, L., Relational Development in Computer-supported Groups, MIS Quarterly, 20:2, 1996, [6] Coleman, J.S., Katz, E. and Menzel, H., Medical Innovation: A Diffusion Study, 1966, Bobbs-Merrill, New York. [7] Contractor, N.S.E. and Eisenberg, M., Communication Networks and New Media in Organizations, in: Organizations and 8

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