The Effects of Gender and Visual Stimuli on Perception of Self. Kelly Holland. Monica Moreno. San Jose State University

Transcription

1 Gender and Stimuli 1 Running head: GENDER AND VISUAL STIMULI The Effects of Gender and Visual Stimuli on Perception of Self Kelly Holland Monica Moreno San Jose State University

2 Gender and Stimuli 2 Abstract This study examined the perception of self among 75 male and female college students of different ethnic backgrounds. The prevailing view based on exposure to media images is that people will inherit a negative view of themselves. Participants who viewed stimuli were shown images of highly attractive people (male and female). Each participant answered statements which reflected perceptions of themselves, either based on the statements or images they saw. Results indicate no significant interaction between Gender and Stimuli. However, when analyzed separately with each individual statement there was an effect. There were also statistically significant results between Gender and Ethnicity, and Stimuli, and Ethnicity.

3 Gender and Stimuli 3 The Effects of Gender and Visual Stimuli on Perception of Self Investigating the effects of visual imagery on perception of self is important to understand how individuals perceive themselves. The influence of visual stimuli is evident in print ads, television, and movies. Sociological and psychological literature has shown that exposure to media imagery depicting the thin ideal leads to a more negative affect on women s self esteem (Groesz, Levine, & Murnen, 2002). Over time there has been a transition of the ideal body image for males (more muscular) and for females (more thin) (Martin & Gentry, 1997). Although males and females differ according to their perception of self, there is evidence that males may have lower self esteem after viewing images of muscular men (Barlett, Saucier & Vowels, 2008). According to previous research there is an increase in dissatisfaction with muscle tone among males (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2003) as a result of featuring muscular men in product commercials and print ads. Further research could enhance the understanding of the development of eating disorders, low self-esteem, body dysmorphia disorder, excessive exercise, increased steroid use among men, and the power of visual imagery projected by the media. It is important to examine the use of categorical representation to understand how media produced imagery effects a person s perception of self. There are two ways categorical thinking can influence a person s perception. First, perceivers may use representation or encoding to categorize visual stimuli (Macrae & Bodenhausen, 2000). Category representation allows perceivers to streamline their thoughts, which allows them to process a vast amount of visual stimuli. Perceivers use categorical representation as an attempt to make sense of other people. For instance, a person with long hair is automatically categorizes as female, even though physical evidence may suggest otherwise. Second, the perceiver may use traits or behavioral expectancies to gain information about the visual stimuli. This process commonly gives rise to

4 Gender and Stimuli 4 stereotype-based judgments (Macrae, et al., 2000). Behavioral expectancy categorization is also used by the perceiver to streamline their thoughts in more specific categories (Macrae, et al., 2000). For example, when asked to provide the profession of a person who wears a blue uniform, a police officer comes to mind (Macrae, et al., 2000). Categorization is useful in perceiving the physical world, in preventing potentially dangerous situations, in perceiving others and oneself. Categorical representation also allows the individual to form stereotypes about particular visual stimuli. Perceivers not only use these categorical classifications to make snap judgments on other people but also to categorize themselves. Society influences the way males and females perceive their bodies. The media (magazines, advertisements, TV, and movies) projects societal and cultural values to both males and females. A muscular male exhibiting wide shoulders, such as Jean-Claude Van Damn, or Brad Pitt, represents the male body (Barlett, Saucier & Vowels, 2008). Cash and Brown (1989) suggest that weight concern among young women are based on three factors; societies stigma on obesity, idealization of thinness in females, and the belief that a woman s appearance is the core aspect of femininity. Females who had exposure to the ideal body image of what is beautiful exhibited lower self esteem compared to women who had not been exposed to such idealistic body images (Green & Pritchard, 2003). Martin and Gentry (1997) found that models in Seventeen magazine have become thinner and less curvaceous since the 1970 s. Males are more confident in their physical strength and capabilities whereas females are less confident in their physical appearance and abilities (Maiano, Ninot, Stephan, Morin, Florent, & Vallee, 2006). This suggests that females negative self perception could be due to exposure of Western ideal body norms.

5 Gender and Stimuli 5 From the age of six, females become conscious about their bodies and what it means to be obese. More often than not these young girls have the picture perfect idea of what it means to be beautiful according to society, the media, and the way their parents deal with their self perception of their own bodies (Green & Pritchard, 2003). Girls whose mothers managed their diet showed greater body dissatisfaction than girls whose diet was not controlled (Cash & Brown, 1989). Girls may become more conscious of their weight and physical appearance if they gain weight during puberty. Females are stigmatized more than males about their weight and physical appearance through the constant attention media reinforces about thin being the beautiful body type. Overall, females tend to be less fitness oriented and pay more attention to their physical attributes and appearance than males (Cash & Brown, 1989). However research is showing that there is an increase in the pressure that men feel to conform to the expectations of society s ideal standards of men being masculine with lean abs (Hobza, Yakushko, Peugh, & Walker, 2007). Males may also exhibit some degree of body dissatisfaction after being exposed to the media s stereotypes of the ideal body. Males appear to portray higher levels of body dissatisfaction after viewing magazines that portray men with muscular physiques (Farquhar and Wasylkiw, 2007). Males may become fixated on specific parts of their bodies that are not appealing to them, such as, biceps, and chest. Conflicting evidence found males do not need to view images of extremely muscular men in order to exhibit a negative self-image. Males begin to internalize what has been ingrained in their minds of the male image, even if not so muscular and therefore create a negative image of themselves (Barlett, Saucier & Vowels, 2008). The lack of research conducted on males could be a result of the American social perception that females are more concerned with perception of self.

6 Gender and Stimuli 6 Cash and Brown found that females place more of a cognitive and behavioral emphasis on managing their appearance and health and are less focused on fitness (1989). Females exhibited more concern with weight gain than their male counterparts (Cash, et al., 1989). Research examining the print ads in magazines geared towards women found a greater emphasis on body shape, figure enhancement, and diet foods (Cash, et al., 1989). Male and female roles are constantly being conveyed in TV shows, movies, and magazines. Males are portrayed as physically strong and providers while females are portrayed as thin, and proportioned, resembling a Barbie doll appearance. Franko and Moore (1989) conclude that the possible gender differences in body dissatisfaction may be due to the reality that females are looked at in an objectifying way by society and men, whereas male s bodies are looked at according to functionality. According to Barlett et. al (2008) both males and females have an indirect link of socio-cultural factors and body image dissatisfaction; the internalization of societal standards and appearance comparison. When males and females view images that depict the ideal image they may compare themselves to, that image and negative feelings about themselves may surface if they do not meet the standard of beauty that is emphasized in society. The average American is exposed to thousands of media images every day (Hobza, Walker, Yakushko, & Peugh, 2007). Whether by viewing a magazine or watching television, the mass media play a key role in communicating ideals of attractiveness (Hargreaves, 2003). Images shown on television, fashion magazines, and music videos often portray an unrealistic beauty and body ideals. Mass media places heavy emphasis on muscularity for men and thinness for women (Barlette, et al., 2008). With little to no images of average size or overweight people shown by the media it sends a clear message to men and women: to be attractive, men must be muscular and women must be thin (Polivy & Herman 2004).

7 Gender and Stimuli 7 The ideal female body depicted in the media is that of a skinny woman (tall, with long legs, with narrow hips, and thin thighs) (Grabe, Ward, & Hyde, 2008). This thin ideal for women seen in the media has become increasingly thinner in the past few decades, making it more difficult for women to obtain the ideal thin body (Hawkins, Richards, Granley, & Stein, 2004). Seventy percent of female characters shown on television sit-coms are typically below the average weight of a woman (Fouts & Burggraf, 2000). The body size of women in the media are often more than 20 percent underweight (Spitzer, et al., 1999). Product commercials and magazine advertisements that target women usually use ultra thin young models to promote products (Anscultz, Strien, & Engels, 2008). For example, diet related commercials and/or advertisements depict before and after images of the same female; in the before images the females are overweight and appear to be unhappy, and in the after images the female is thin and appears to be happy (Grabe, et al., 2008). This can potentially send the message that in order to achieve happiness a woman must be thin. Further more, television programs show more thin female characters than overweight female characters (Gabe, et al., 2008). Research indicates that the male body depicted in the media has become increasingly muscular and lean over time (Hobza, et al., 2007). Men s fashion and fitness magazines are increasingly geared toward being healthy and physically fit (Petrie, Austin, Crowley, Helmcamp, Johnson, & Lester, 1996). Hobza, et al, (2008) recently found that the ideal male body in magazine advertisements and television commercials that target men are more muscular than the ideal male body marketed to women. The ideal male body marketed to men is that of a muscular man, that is characterized by well-developed chest and arm muscles, broad shoulders and a lower torso containing a slim waist, hips and buttocks (Grabe, et al., 2008). To persuade male consumers to purchase their product, beer commercials often use sexual images of barely dressed

8 Gender and Stimuli 8 thin attractive women. Commercials targeting men for the purpose of purchasing gym equipment will use a muscular and shirtless man (Barlette, et al, 2008). Moreover, in the past 25 years action figures such as G.I. Joe, Batman, and Superman, have all become more muscular (Johnson. McCreary, & Mills, 2007). The images of the muscular man and the thin woman ideal have not always been the standard of attractiveness. Indeed, female models and/or actresses are thinner and male models and/or actors are more muscular when comparing to their past counterparts (Grabe, 2008). An analysis of Seventeen, a magazine that targets adolescent females, found that female models shown within the magazine are less curvaceous than models in women magazines. Additionally, from 1970 to 1990 the models shown in the magazine have become thinner (Martin, et al., 1997). A four decade comparison of Miss America Pageant winners revealed that pageant winners significantly degreased in size from 1953 to 1985 (Spitzer, Henderson, & Zivian, 1999). The same study also analyzed the body size of Playboy centerfolds between 1959 and 1978 found similar results (Spitzer, et al., 1999). In marked contrast to models shown within Seventeen Magazine and Miss American Pageant winners, Playgirl models increased sharply in size between 1986 and 1996 (Spitze, et al., 1999). None of the men depicted in Playgirl were underweight; their body size increase was not an increase in body fat, but an increase in muscle (Spitze, et al., 1999) Images shown by the mass media women are increasingly becoming thinner and men are becoming more muscular. The gap between body size of images depicted through mass media and body size of the average man and woman has increased over time, making the ideal body image unattainable by both men and women.

9 Gender and Stimuli 9 The interaction between Gender and Visual Stimuli seem to show a negative influence on males and females and their perception of self (Green & Pritchard, 2003). Research has shown that media exposure to the ideal thin body leads to the internalization of the thin ideal portrayed through print ads, television, and movies (Aubrey, 2007). When exposed to thin media images, females are significantly more dissatisfied than males with their body than after viewing images of plus-sized models (Green & Pritchard, 2003). Studies have found that female college students, pre-adolescents, and adolescents compare their physical attractiveness to images seen in ads, movies, and television (Martin & Gentry, 1997). Although males report that media images do not have an impact on them, it has been shown that media images have an impact on how men feel about themselves (Kennedy, 2000). This study seeks to contribute to prior research conducted on the effects gender and visual stimuli have on perception of self. Methods Participants Seventy five (19 males, 56 females) undergraduate students from San Jose State University participated. The participants were ethnically diverse and identified themselves as African American, Asian, Latino, and White. Participants who agreed to participate received 3% added on to their course grade at the end of the semester. Ten participants failed to respond to the statements as instructed so their data was not included. Data from one participant was not included because he/she was under the age of 18. Materials The stimuli were four colored photographs (two women, two men) all famous people in the media with an ideal body image for both men and women as depicted by the media (see Appendixes A).

10 Gender and Stimuli 10 The response sheet consisted of fifteen statements. The three page response sheet (see Appendix C) included questions about participants and how they perceived their own bodies after viewing stimuli (photos) of highly attractive people or no photos. Participants were to answer the statements with regards to how much they agreed with the statement. The responses were measured based on a 13 cm scale. Participants also completed a background questionnaire (see Appendix B) regarding their age, ethnicity, gender, ideal weight, current weight, work out habits, and how many if any subscriptions they had to magazines. Procedure Testing happened in a classroom environment that was reasonably distraction free. Upon arriving participants received both verbal and written instructions stating the experiment was optional and students who agreed to participate signed a consent form. After further instructions, participants read and completed the background questionnaire (see Appendix A) in which they were given two minutes to complete. The participants who viewed images were instructed to keep the Self Perception Questionnaire (see Appendix C) face down until instructed to complete the form. Participants were also informed that if they viewed the form before instructed to do so, their information would not be used in the study. The researchers passed out the Self Perception Questionnaire. Once everyone had a form, the researchers projected the images one by one for five sec each onto the screen. Participants were asked to pay close attention to physical attributes of each image shown to try and elicit a response. Immediately following the removal of the stimulus the participants had 4 min to complete the Self Perception Questionnaire. Participants who had no stimuli also answered the Self Perception Questionnaire.

11 Gender and Stimuli 11 Design and Analyses. The data were collected in four experimental conditions for 2 x 2 mixed-model ANOVA. Gender (male, female) was the between-subjects factor and Stimuli (with, without) was the within-subjects factor. The rejection level for all analyses was set at p =.05. The coding keys conditions were (0=visual stimuli, 1=no visual stimuli). Gender (1=female; 2=male; 3=other). Work out (0=yes; 1=no). Hours of TV per week (0=0-10 hours; 1=11-20 hours). Ethnicity (1=Whites; 2=Non Whites). To measure how strongly the participant disagreed with the statements a ruler was used to measure from strongly agree to the participants answer on the horizontal line. For each Likert scale item, the researchers measured the distance in centimeters from strongly agree to where the participants responded with a thick slash mark. A lower mean indicates a strong agreement with the statement. Each statement was analyzed independently. Results This study evaluated the effects of gender and visual imagery on the perception of self. Effects of Gender When asked statements about their physical appearance, males (M=3.6, SD= 2.46 were more confident than females (M=5.5, SD=3.23). This effect was statistically significant F(1,86), =5.737, p <.019. Females (M=5.9, SD=3.51) were not as confident as their male (M=9.6, SD=3.23) counterparts when asked about confidence in their physical appearance after looking at photos of thin people. This effect was very statistically significant F(1,86), =17.212, p < When asked statements about frequent exercise in order to alter body shape, males (M=4.3, SD=3.57) agreed more than females (M=7.0, SD=3.87). This effect was statistically significant F(1,84), =8.194, p<.035. Males (M=4.1, SD= 3.24) worry more about muscle tone and strength

12 Gender and Stimuli 12 more than females do (M=5.8, SD=3.75). This effect was very statistically significant F(1,82), =3.837, p<.054. When asked if they want to gain weight, males (M=6.5, SD=4.34) agreed more with the statement than females (M=11.0, SD=3.22). This effect was statistically significant F(1,85), =23.32, p < Females (M=5.7, SD=3.80) also agreed more than their male (M=8.0, SD=3.30) counterparts when asked statements regarding comparing their bodies to others. This effect was statistically significant F(1,86), =6.745, p <.011. Regarding how often they weigh themselves, women (M=8.2, SD=3.80) slightly agreed more than men (M=8.3, SD=3.32). This effect was statistically significant F(1,86), =4.565, p<.035. Effects of Stimuli The analysis conducted for Gender and Stimuli indicated no statistically significant effects. Additional analyses with other variables were conducted (age, hours of TV. watched per day, current weight, ideal weight) indicating no statistically significant results. Interactions of Gender and Stimuli No interaction was found between Gender and Stimuli when asked questions about confidence in physical appearance, F(1,86), =.491, p<.485, when asked about confidence with physical appearance after looking at photos of thin people, F(1,86), =.095, p<.759, statements that asked if they want to gain weight, F(1,85), =.103, p<.749, and when asked if worried about being fat, F(1,86), =.171, p<.680. No interaction was found between gender and stimuli when asked about comparing their body to others to see if they are heavier, F(1,86),= 2.945, p<.090, statements that ask about working out frequently to alter their body shape, F(1,84),=.853, p<.358, and if they worry about how toned and firm their muscles are and how strong they may be, F(1,86), =.1.248, p<.267.

13 Gender and Stimuli 13 Other Analysis Analyses with Gender and Ethnicity, and Stimuli and Ethnicity confirmed interactions. When participants were asked the statement I worry about being too fat, an interaction between Ethnicity and Stimuli was found, F(1,82), =4.420, p <.039. When asked the statement, I often compare myself to others, an interaction was found between Gender and Ethnicity, F(1,82), =4.838, p <.031. White females agreed more with this statement than White males and non-whites. The means and standard deviations of this interaction are shown in Table 1. Insert Table 1 here Discussion This study investigated the effects of visual stimuli on the perception of self. Participants of both genders were instructed to either answer statements without viewing images or after viewing four images. Participants who viewed the images were instructed to answer the statements based on how they perceived themselves after viewing the images. While participants not shown images were instructed to answer the statements based on how strongly they agreed with each statement. In the present study, results show that females focus more on physical attractiveness and weight; while males were more concerned with body sculpting and toning. These results are consistent with previous research conducted by Cash and Brown (2004) who have documented that females tend to pay more attention to physical appearance whereas males tend to focus more on fitness. Furthermore, Martin and Gentry (1997) concluded that males body perceptions are

14 Gender and Stimuli 14 based on the physical instrumental effectiveness of their body, whereas females focus primarily on the physical attractiveness of body parts. This study also found that women feel less confident about their physical appearance after viewing photos of thin people. Previous research conducted by Cash, Cash, and Butters (1983) supports this finding. They found that female college students who viewed images of attractive women experienced lower self-perception than female college students who viewed images of moderately attractive women. Although the effects of Visual Stimuli on perception of self was not statistically significant, previous research has shown that repeated exposure to these images may lead to the internalization of this beauty ideal so that it becomes a reference for self judgment (Cash & Pruzinsky, 2004). Research has also shown that after viewing magazines that have images of men with muscular physiques, men appear to show higher levels of body dissatisfaction (Farquhar & Wasylkiw, 2007). The amount of time the images were shown (5 sec) to participants may have been a contributing factor for the non-significant results. Researchers conducting a similar experiment may need to show images for a longer period of time. The interaction between gender and stimuli did not have the expected significant effect in this experiment. However, gender effects were shown to be significant between participants who viewed images and participants whom did not view the images. With the increase in exposure to visual stimuli through television and magazines, future research is needed to determine in more detail the effects of these stimuli on perception of self.

15 Gender and Stimuli 15 References Anscultz, D.J., Strien, T., & Engels, R., (2008). Exposure to slim images in mass media: Television commercials as reminders of restriction in restrained eaters. Health Psychology, 27, Aubrey, J. (2007). The impact of sexually objectifying media exposure on negative body emotions and sexual self-perceptions: investigating the mediating role of body self- consciousness. Mass Communication & Society, 10, Barlett, C. P., Vowels, C. L., & Saucier, D. A. (2008). Meta-analyses of the effects of media images on men's body-image concerns. Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology, 27, Brown, A. T., Cash, F. T. (1989). Gender and body images: Stereotypes and realities. Sex Roles, 21, Farquhar, C. Jamie, Wasylkiw, Louise (2007). Media images of men: Trends and consequences of body conceptualisation. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 8, Grabe, S., Ward, L., & Hyde, J., (2008). The role of the media in body image concerns among women: A meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies. Psychological Bulletin, 134, Green, S., & Pritchard, M. (2003). Predictors of body image dissatisfaction in adult men and women. Social Behavior and Personality, 31, Groesz, L., Levine, M., & Murnen, S. (2002). The effect of experimental presentation of thin media images on body satisfaction: A meta-analytic review. Annual Review, 31, Fouts, G., & Burggraf, K. (2000). Television situation comedies: Female weight, male negative comments and audience reactions. Sex Roles, 42, Hawkins, N., Richards, S., Granley, M., & Stein, D., (2004). The impact of exposure to the thin-

16 Gender and Stimuli 16 ideal media image on women. Eating disorders: The journal of treatment & prevention, 12, Kennedy, B. (2000). Masculinity, eating and exercise: The relationships of men to their bodies (Doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, 2000). Dissertation Abstracts International, 61, 535. Macrae C.N., & Bodenhausen, G.V. (2000). Social cognition: thinking categorically about others. Annual Review, 51, Maiano, C., Ninat, G., Stephan, Y., Morin, A.S., Florent, J., & Vallee, P. (2006). Geographic region effects on adolescent physical self: an exploratory study. International Journal of Psychology, 41, Martin, M., & Gentry, J. (1997). Stuck in the model trap: the effects of beautiful models in ads and female pre-adolescents and adolescents. The Journal of Advertising, 26, Petrie, T., Austin, L., Crowley, B., Helmcamp, A., Johnson, C., Lester. R. (1996). Sociocultural expectations of attractiveness for males. Sex Roles, 35, Polivy, J. & Herman, C., (2004). Sociocultural idealization of thin female body shapes: An interdiction to the special issue on body image and eating disorders. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 1-6. Spitzer, B., Henderson, K., & Zivian, M., (1999). Gender differences in population versus media body sizes: A comparison over four decades. Sex Roles, 40,

17 Appendix A: Stimuli Gender and Stimuli 17

18 Gender and Stimuli 18 Appendix B: Background Questionnaire Gender: Age: Ethnicity: Current Weight (estimated): What weight do you feel the healthiest? Height: Do you work out? How many times a week do you work out (on average)? List visual impairments you have (if any): Have you eaten in the past 3 hours? Have you had any caffeine today? If so, list the beverage(s) type: How many ounces (estimated)? On average, how many hours of television do you watch each day (on average)? Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday es you read on a regular basis? List magazin

19 Gender and Stimuli 19 Appendix C: Response Sheet Please DO NOT put your name on this form. Directions: Place a thick diagonal mark on the horizontal line to show how much you agree with the statement. Please answer questions honestly. In the example below notice the thick mark on the horizontal line. *The response scale is not the same for all questions. Pay close attention to the response options when answering the questions. Example A (Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree) I like candy. Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree Example B (Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree) Ice cream is good for breakfast. Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1. In general, I feel confident about my physical appearance. Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree 2. After looking at photos of thin people I feel less confident about my physical appearance. Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree

20 Gender and Stimuli In general, I am satisfied with my weight. Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 4. I worry about being thin. Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 5. I want to gain weight. Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree 6. I worry about being too fat. Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree 7. I don t like looking at myself in mirrors. Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree 8. I compare my body to others to see if they are heavier than I am. Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree 9. I have negative and self-critical thoughts about my body and appearance. Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 10. How satisfied are you with the shape of your body. Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree

21 Gender and Stimuli The sky is blue. Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 12. I weigh myself often. Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree 13. I exercise to only to maintain my current weight. Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree 14. I exercise frequently in order to alter my body shape. Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree 15. I worry about how toned and firm my muscles are, or how strong I might be. Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree

22 Gender and Stimuli 22 Table 1 Means (and standard deviations) how much participants strongly agree with the statements by Ethnicity and Gender (smaller values indicate stronger agreement) Mean Standard Deviation Worry about being too fat Ethnicity and Gender Females Males Whites Non-Whites Ethnicity and Stimuli