Sources of Competence Information and Perceived Motivational Climate Among Adolescent Female Gymnasts Varying in Skill Level

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1 396 JOURNAL / Halliburton OF SPORT & and EXERCISE Weiss PSYCHOLOGY, 2002, 24, Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc. Sources of Competence Information and Perceived Motivational Climate Among Adolescent Female Gymnasts Varying in Skill Level Amy L. Halliburton and Maureen R. Weiss University of Virginia Theoretically grounded in the work of Harter (1978, 1981) and Ames (1992a), three research questions were addressed in the present study: (a) Do sources of competence information vary by skill level? (b) Do perceptions of the motivational climate vary by skill level? and (c) Are sources of competence information and perceived motivational climate related? Adolescent female gymnasts (N = 103, ages years) competing at Skill Levels 5 to 10 completed measures regarding sources of competence information and perceived motivational climate. Results revealed that: (a) gymnasts competing at lower levels (5 6, 7) used sources of effort and enjoyment more than did gymnasts competing at higher levels (8, 9, and 10), who used feelings of nervousness and spectator feedback more frequently; (b) no significant differences emerged in perceptions of the motivational climate among gymnasts competing at various skill levels; and (c) a significant relationship emerged between use of sources of competence information and perceived motivational climate. In general, perceptions of a mastery climate were associated with the use of selfreferenced sources of information, whereas perceptions of a performance climate were associated with the use of peer comparison and competition performance sources of information. Key Words: perceived competence, gymnastics The competitive nature of sport assumes the importance of success and achievement. Both theory and empirical literature indicate that successful performances and attainment of achievement goals result in greater self-esteem and, conversely, individuals with greater self-esteem demonstrate greater motivation levels and achievement (Harter, 1990). With heightened self-esteem, motivation, and achievement being a common goal among educators, coaches, and parents, understanding the mechanisms by which this goal is attained is a salient issue. A key determinant of self-esteem and motivated behavior is perceived competence in achievement domains valued as important (Harter, 1990). An athlete s Amy Halliburton is now with the Dept. of Human Development and Family Studies, Univ. of Missouri Columbia, Columbia, MO 65211; Maureen Weiss is with the Kinesiology Program, Univ. of Virginia, PO Box , Charlottesville, VA

2 Sources of Competence Information / 397 perceptions of competence are influenced by a number of variables including those that provide information about his or her ability. Among these variables are an array of self-referenced (e.g., effort, improvement) and socioenvironmental sources (parents, peers, coaches) (Harter, 1978, 1981; Weiss & Ebbeck, 1996). Within the physical domain, isolating the sources that athletes use to define their competence is a salient endeavor because perceived competence is inextricably linked to affect, self-esteem, and motivation. Popular theoretical approaches to the study of motivation and achievement include competence motivation theory (Harter, 1978, 1981) and achievement goal theory (Ames, 1992a; Nicholls, 1989). According to Harter, individuals are motivated to develop and demonstrate competence, and assess their competence using information provided in their achievement environment. There are several types of information sources in the sport context by which individuals judge their ability, including feedback from significant adults and peers, social comparison, selfcomparison (improvement, effort), and event outcome (Horn & Amorose, 1998). An appealing characteristic of Harter s model is that it is developmental in nature. Thus it considers age-related changes in individuals desire to achieve in particular domains and in perceptions of competence and control. Harter suggests that individuals gradually internalize a self-reward system and mastery goals with age, but this depends on the type of reinforcement and approval provided by significant others, especially parents, for attempts at mastery. If parents provide unconditional approval and positive reinforcement for independent attempts at mastery, the child s need for external reinforcement and goals should diminish and he or she should gradually prefer internal criteria for judging personal competence and self-set goals regarding achievement. Research in the physical domain has indicated an age-related trend in the sources of information that athletes use to assess their competence (see Horn & Harris, 1996, for a review). Specifically, children ages 8 to 9 use task completion, feedback from significant others (namely parents), sport attraction, and game outcome to assess their sport competence. Children ages 10 to 13 rely less on outcome and parent sources and instead use peer comparison, peer evaluation, and coach feedback in assessing their competence. In later adolescence, the salient sources of competence information are peer evaluation, self-comparison, and internalized standards such as effort and enjoyment (Horn, Glenn, & Wentzell, 1993; Weiss, Ebbeck, & Horn, 1997). While age-related trends in competence information sources have been noted in the literature, considerable variability exists within age groups. Children of the same age often rely on sources of competence information in varying ways. For example, Horn and Weiss (1991) and McKiddie and Maynard (1997) found that children comprising different age groups varied in the accuracy of perceptions of competence and sources of information to assess their competence. However, variability in accuracy and use of competence information sources were found not only between age groups but also within age groups. Children who were accurate or inaccurate in judgments about ability used varying sources to assess their competence, regardless of age. Thus, other variables besides age may help explain within-group variability in the use of competence information sources. Several studies have shown that other personal variables such as gender (Horn et al., 1993; McKiddie & Maynard, 1997) and psychological characteristics such

3 398 / Halliburton and Weiss as perceived control, competitive anxiety, and goal orientation are related to the use of physical competence sources (Horn & Hasbrook, 1987; Weiss et al., 1997; Williams, 1994). For example, Weiss et al. found considerable variability in the use of competence information sources among children differing in age and psychological characteristics such as self-esteem, perceived competence, and trait anxiety. Other intrapersonal and interpersonal variables may also explain withinage-group variability in preference for sources of physical competence information. Two variables that may help explain variations in the use of competence information sources are skill level and socioenvironmental factors (Ebbeck, 1994; Horn & Amorose, 1998). In sport, skill or competitive level is often confounded with age in that as athletes get older, they participate at higher skill/competitive levels. Horn et al. (1993) found that older adolescent athletes differed from younger adolescents on preferred sources of competence information. However, the older group was overrepresented at the varsity level while younger athletes were playing on freshman and junior varsity teams. Moreover, athletes varying in skill level on the same team may have different perceptions of information provided by coaches. For example, Horn (1984, 1985) found that higher and lower skilled players received differential coach feedback about their competence levels. Ebbeck (1990, 1994), using an objective tennis rating system, separated age and skill level in examining their relationships to level and sources of perceived competence. Skill level was positively associated with level of perceived competence as well as the use of specific sources for judging tennis competence (e.g., winning, social comparison). In the sport of gymnastics, skill level carries specific meaning that may provide a unique window through which to study skill level variations in sources of physical competence information. Gymnasts of varying ages can be competing at the same skill level or gymnasts of the same age can be competing at varying skill levels. Therefore, identifying the sources of information that different skill level and age groups use in assessing their gymnastics competence is an interesting way to examine the variability that might exist in self-judgments of ability. In women s gymnastics, gymnasts advance through a progression of skill levels, with 1 being the lowest, 10 being the highest (USA Gymnastics, 1997), and beyond Level 10 considered the elite level. Levels 1 through 3 are noncompetitive and focus on basic skills in the sport. Level 4 is the first competitive level, but competition at this level is rare. When gymnasts reach Level 5 their competitive careers begin in earnest. Compulsory routines every gymnast performs the exact same routine are performed by gymnasts on each event. Level 6 is similar except that skills included in the compulsory routines become increasingly difficult. Level 7 is the first opportunity that gymnasts have to compete in optional routines. Optional routines are choreographed individually so that every gymnast performs a unique one. While each routine contains some identical skills as mandated by the Code of Points, the choreography is left to the gymnast and her coach. Levels 8, 9, and 10 are strictly optional, no compulsories; the differences between these levels lie in skill difficulty, the requirements for which increase with advancing skill level. Thus, the built-in levels of skill defined by USA Gymnastics provide a good opportunity for examining the relationship between skill level and sources of physical competence information.

4 Sources of Competence Information / 399 Socioenvironmental factors have also been implicated as contributors to individuals level and sources of competence information. For example, as youth transition from elementary to middle school, the grading system, class structure, and emphasis on performance outcome may encourage dependence on peer comparison and evaluation as information sources, which in turn may affect level of perceived competence (Eccles & Midgley, 1990; Harter, 1992). In the sport achievement context, Horn and colleagues (Horn & Amorose, 1998; Horn & Weiss, 1991; Horn et al., 1993) propose that socioenvironmental factors such as program structure, coach philosophy and behaviors, and team climate all likely contribute to variations in sources of perceived competence. Perceptions of the achievement context are often referred to as the perceived motivational climate (Ames, 1992a). Ames (1992a, 1992b) emphasizes the importance of the motivational climate in changing individuals competence perceptions, affect, and behaviors within achievement contexts (Ames, 1992b). A mastery or task-involving motivational climate emphasizes effort, learning, and improvement whereas a performance or ego-involving motivational climate emphasizes performance outcomes and norm-referenced success. The way that the coach structures the learning environment, groups the athletes together, recognizes athletes for their accomplishments, and evaluates their athletic performances contributes to the perceived motivational climate, which in turn affects athletes psychological and motivational processes. Research in the sport domain supports these assertions (Krane, Greenleaf, & Snow, 1997; Seifriz, Duda, & Chi, 1992; Theeboom, De Knop, & Weiss, 1995; Walling, Duda, & Chi, 1993). Taken together, research shows that a mastery oriented climate is positively related to task goals, enjoyment, satisfaction, interest, and intrinsic motivation. By contrast, a performance oriented climate is positively related to ego goals, negative affect, and feelings of pressure. In a related study, Chaumeton and Duda (1988) showed that perceived motivational climate in terms of goal emphasis differed according to skill level, with athletes at higher competitive levels perceiving a greater emphasis on performance outcome than athletes competing at lower skill levels. Thus perceived motivational climate in sport is important to consider when studying athletes of varying skill levels. The sport of gymnastics offers a good opportunity for assessing relationships among skill level, motivational climate, and sources of competence information. Because the structure and emphasis of classes vary by skill level, this is likely to influence gymnasts perceptions of the atmosphere pervading their practices and competitions. At the lower skill levels, the emphasis is primarily on fun and skill improvement. But as gymnasts progress in their careers they find themselves spending more time in the gym because goals become increasingly competitive in nature and performances are dependent upon the quality of compulsory and optional routines. Competitive events become more exclusive, and gymnasts often have to place in a top percentile in order to advance to the next competition. Thus an increased emphasis is placed on winning, as progression becomes a process of weeding out the less skilled gymnasts. The atmosphere changes from a primary focus on learning fundamentals in the lower skill levels to performance outcome (ratings, rankings, placing in meets) in the higher levels (see Weiss, Amorose, & Allen, 2000, for a review of relevant gymnastics studies).

5 400 / Halliburton and Weiss Horn and colleagues (Horn & Amorose, 1998; Horn & Weiss, 1991; Weiss et al., 1997) suggest the need for more research on the intrapersonal and socioenvironmental factors that may be related to athletes use of competence information sources in the sport domain. The sport of gymnastics is ideal for such an investigation, as variations in sources of competence information and perceived motivational climate can be teased out by skill level and age. Drawing links among skill level, perceived motivational climate, and competence information sources would expand the knowledge base about factors that affect motivation in this population. To address these links, the present study focused on adolescent gymnasts ages 12 to 14 years competing at different skill levels (Levels 5 10). The first purpose of the study was to examine sources of competence information used by adolescent female gymnasts competing at different skill levels. Because the emphasis at the lower skill levels is on skill improvement and fun, it was expected that gymnasts competing at lower levels would cite the use of more self-referenced sources of information such as effort, enjoyment, and skill improvement than gymnasts at higher levels. Because the emphasis at higher skill levels is on comparing favorably to competitors (winning, rankings, scores), it was expected that norm-referenced competence information sources such as peer comparison and competition statistics would be more salient. In other words, the program structure and competitive philosophy that vary with skill level in gymnastics may encourage young athletes to use certain information sources over others (Horn & Amorose, 1998). Although these gymnasts competed in the same age group (12 14 years), age and skill level are still potentially confounded. Thus we also compared 12-, 13-, and 14-year-old competitors on information sources by collapsing across skill level. 1 The second purpose was to examine skill-related differences in perceived motivational climate. While gymnasts competing at various skill levels may perceive characteristics of both a mastery and a performance oriented climate, it was expected that gymnasts competing at lower skill levels would perceive a greater mastery climate whereas those at higher skill levels would perceive a greater performance climate. These hypotheses also stem from the program structure, competitive philosophy, and coaching behaviors that vary with lower to higher skill levels, which are likely to align with perceptions of mastery and performance climates, respectively. Age differences were examined along with skill level differences on perceived motivational climate to address a possible confound between skill level and age. The third purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between sources of competence information and perceived motivational climate. It was expected that perceptions of a mastery oriented climate would be associated with greater emphasis on self-referenced sources of competence information. As mastery oriented climates are characterized by an emphasis on effort, enjoyment, and learning, corresponding sources would likely include skill improvement, achievement of self-set goals, attraction to the sport of gymnastics, and mastery of new skills (Ames, 1992b). Conversely, it was hypothesized that perceptions of a performance oriented climate would be more highly associated with the use of normreferenced sources of competence information, given the emphasis of this climate on comparing favorably to others. These sources might include peer comparison, winning, and advancing to select competitions.

6 Sources of Competence Information / 401 Table 1 Number of Gymnasts Competing at Each Skill Level by Age Skill Level Age Total Total Participants Method A total of 103 female gymnasts participated in the study, ranging in age from 12 to 14 years (M = 13.22, SD =.84) and competing at Skill Levels 5 to 10 (see Table 1). Participants were recruited from 16 gymnastics clubs, with 2 to 13 gymnasts meeting the skill level and age group criteria from each club. Gymnasts began in the sport at around 5 years of age (M = 5.41, SD = 2.27) and started competing at about age 8 (M = 8.26, SD = 1.27). About 95% of the sample were Caucasian. The skill levels were divided into three chunks for testing study hypotheses: Levels 5 6, 7, and This resulted in sample sizes of 42, 31, and 30 gymnasts at each skill level category, respectively. Levels 5 and 6 are compulsory levels wherein all skill requirements are identical within the level. Level 7 is unique and represents the bridge between compulsory and optional gymnastics. Based on the uniqueness of Level 7 in terms of meeting difficulty requirements and the large number of gymnasts competing at this level nationwide, Level 7 was treated as a single category. Levels 8, 9, and 10 were grouped together, as they represent a significantly higher and more challenging domain of gymnastics than Levels 5 7. Age was also included as an independent variable to test Hypotheses 1 and 2, with sample sizes being 43, 42, and 18 for ages 12, 13, and 14 years, respectively. Gymnasts were chosen because the amount of training time, level of skill difficulty, and amount of pressure differs between competitive levels; the intensity of these variables increases as skill level increases. Therefore this sample allowed for a good test of the study hypotheses. Additionally, adolescent girls are susceptible to social influences in sport, particularly in relation to level and sources of perceived competence (e.g., Horn et al., 1993). Measures Sources of Competence Information. The Sources of Competence Information Scale (SCIS; Horn & Amorose, 1998) assessed the extent to which gymnasts use particular sources of information in judging their gymnastics competence. Several versions have been used across studies, depending on the age group sampled (Horn & Amorose, 1998). 2 The version of the SCIS used in this study stemmed from the one by Horn et al. (1993) that used a total of 39 items, with 3 questions

7 402 / Halliburton and Weiss for each of 13 sources of competence information: parent feedback, coach feedback, peer comparison, peer evaluation, attraction to gymnastics, internal information, speed/ease of learning, amount of effort exerted, skill improvement, game outcome, competition performance statistics, spectator feedback, and achievement of self-set goals. In the present study the category of practice performance replaced game outcome to be more relevant to gymnastics. Four items were added to the overall scale, one item each for internal information, achievement of self-set goals, peer comparison, and competitive performance statistics for a total of 43 items. 3 These items were added to also accommodate the unique sport of gymnastics, as previous studies using the SCIS have primarily tapped team sports (Horn & Amorose, 1998). Adjustments were made to the number and wording of items so that the scale was specific to the sport of gymnastics. Generally the term gymnast was substituted for player and the terms competition or meet were substituted for game. The gymnasts were asked to think about how they know whether or not they are good at gymnastics. Gymnasts then rated the importance of each item on a 5- point Likert scale ranging from 1 = not at all important to 5 = extremely important. Content and construct validity have been established for versions of the SCIS (Horn et al., 1993; Horn & Hasbrook, 1986; Horn & Weiss, 1991; Weiss et al., 1997). Perceived Motivational Climate. The Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire-2 (PMSCQ-2; Newton, Duda, & Yin, 2000) assessed the extent to which gymnasts perceived a mastery oriented (task-involving) or performance oriented (ego-involving) climate in the gym. The PMSCQ-2 was developed from an earlier version of the measure (PMCSQ; Seifriz et al., 1992) but specifically sought to tap the underlying multiple dimensions of mastery and performance climates in the sport domain. The mastery climate dimensions were labeled cooperative learning, effort/improvement, and important role, and consist of 17 items. The performance dimensions were labeled punishment for mistakes, unequal recognition, and intrateam rivalry, and consist of 16 items. Factorial, concurrent, and construct validity were shown for the PMCSQ-2 (Newton et al., 2000). Of the 33 items that comprise the PMCSQ-2, only 3 were irrelevant to gymnastics ( players are taken out of a game for mistakes ; players at all skill levels have an important role on the team ; if you want to play in a game you must be one of the best players ). One item ( gymnasts try to score higher than their teammates ) was added to the intrateam rivalry subscale. Thus the scale used in the present study included 16 items for mastery climate and 15 items for performance climate. When filling out the PMCSQ-2, the gymnasts responded to the stem In this gym by rating each item on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Adjustments were made to the wording of the items so that the measure was specific to the sport of gymnastics. Generally, the term gymnast was substituted for player and the term meet replaced game. Procedure A letter explaining the general purpose and procedures of the study was sent to the head coaches at private gymnastics clubs, followed by a phone call. Prior to administering the questionnaires to study participants, one of the researchers visited local clubs during a practice to distribute parental consent forms or sent packets containing consent forms to coaches at gyms in remote locations. Gymnasts

8 Sources of Competence Information / 403 were asked to return the consent form to their coach before the day the questionnaire would be administered. A pilot study was conducted prior to the main study to determine comprehension of items and time needed to complete the measures. Six competitive gymnasts (Level 6) ages years participated in the pilot study. Based on the results, we reworded the instructions in the SCIS for clarity, added an example item, and made some wording revisions to items. Instructions for the SCIS were: Some girls think that they are pretty good at gymnastics. Other girls think they are not so good at gymnastics. We want to know how you decide whether you are good or not so good at gymnastics. Listed below are some things that a gymnast might use in judging how good a gymnast she is. Circle the number that best describes how important each item is in helping you know how good you are at gymnastics. The example item to familiarize the gymnasts with answering the questions was, How good my dog or cat thinks I am at gymnastics. Wording revisions to SCIS items were described earlier in the Measures section. On the day of data collection, one of the researchers told the gymnasts she was interested in understanding their thoughts and feelings about competing in gymnastics. Specifically, she indicated that the questions centered on how they judge their gymnastics ability and what kinds of things are emphasized in the gym during practice. To help control for social desirability, gymnasts were told that their coaches would not see their responses and that there were no right or wrong answers. After reading and signing their own assent form, the gymnasts completed the SCIS, the PMCSQ-2, and background questions. They completed the questionnaire in about 20 to 30 minutes. Results Factor Analysis and Scale Reliabilities In order to determine whether the 43 items representing sources of competence information could be reduced to a smaller number of categories, we performed a principal axis factor analysis with varimax rotation. The number of factors retained for the final solution, after extraction of unique and error variance and rotation of factors, included those with an eigenvalue greater than or equal to 1.0 in the initial statistics (Pedhazur & Schmelkin, 1991; Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996). Items with factor loadings of.40 or higher were considered to comprise a factor and were interpreted in the solution (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996). Due to the low ratio of participants to items (2.4:1), the results of the factor analysis should be interpreted with some caution. Nonetheless, the solution converged easily and could be readily interpreted. Twelve factors were initially extracted, accounting for 62% of the variance in the final solution. Nine of the factors were interpretable. Three independent raters were asked to submit labels for the factors so as to reduce bias in naming the factors. The 9 factors were named as follows: Effort and Enjoyment, Peer Comparison/Evaluation, Competition Performance, Parent Evaluation, Learning/Improving Skills, Practice Performance, Feelings of Nervousness, Spectator Feedback, and Achievement of Self-set Goals. Five items were complex, loading on more

9 404 / Halliburton and Weiss than one factor. Subsequently, Factors 10 and 11 were left with one item, and Factor 12 consisted solely of one item. These factors were not considered in further analyses. Table 2 shows the factor loadings for each item. Coefficient alpha was used to compute factor scale reliabilities and all were greater than the.70 criterion (range =.72 to.83; Nunnally, 1978). Scale reliabilities for the PMCSQ-2 were also calculated using coefficient alpha. Alpha coefficients for effort/improvement, important role, punishment for mistakes, and unequal recognition all exceeded the.70 criterion (range =.72 to.92). However, cooperative learning (.68) and intrateam rivalry (.65) fell below this criterion. Item analysis (squared multiple correlations, item-total correlations) indicated that one item on the cooperative learning subscale ( the coaches encourage gymnasts to help each other ) and two items on the intrateam rivalry subscale ( coaches praise gymnasts only when they outscore their teammates and gymnasts are encouraged to score higher than their teammates ) were unreliable. Removal of these items resulted in acceptable reliability indices of.76 and.74, respectively. Do Sources of Competence Information Differ by Skill Level? To answer the first research question, one-way multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVA) were performed. Skill level (5 6, 7, 8 10) represented the independent variable in one analysis, age group (12, 13, 14 years) the independent variable in the other analysis. Factor scores were calculated for each of the 9 competence information factors and these served as the dependent variables. 4 Only the skill level main effect was significant, Wilks =.70, F(18, 184) = 2.03, p <.01. The strength of association (1 ) indicated that 30% of the variance in sources of competence information was attributable to skill level differences. Follow-up univariate ANOVAs and discriminant function coefficients were examined to determine which competence information sources distinguished the three groups. Discriminant coefficients were relied upon more heavily than univariate F s because of the multivariate manner in which variables are treated. Four sources of competence information maximized skill level differences (see Table 3). With.30 as a criterion, these factors were effort/enjoyment, feelings of nervousness, spectator feedback, and achievement of self-set goals. Factor score means and standard deviations for all variables can be seen in Table 3. For variables achieving univariate-f significance, Student-Newman-Keuls (SNK) post-hocs (p <.05) were calculated, while descriptive differences among skill level groups were only possible for variables showing discriminant coefficients greater than.30. Gymnasts comprising Skill Levels 5 6 rated effort/enjoyment as a more important source than did gymnasts at the higher skill levels. In contrast, gymnasts at Levels 8 10 rated spectator feedback and feelings of nervousness higher than those at lower skill levels. Finally, Level 7 gymnasts rated achievement of self-set goals significantly lower (p <.05) than the other skill levels. These findings demonstrate statistically significant differences among skill levels in sources of competence information. Despite these differences, descriptive or mean ratings indicated that some sources were considered more important across skill levels than others. For example, mean ratings for effort/enjoyment and achievement of self-set goals were above 4.0 for all skill levels, while mean ratings for peer comparison/evaluation, feelings of nervousness, and spectator feed-

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14 Sources of Competence Information / 409 back were around or just below the midpoint of 3.0 for all skill levels. 5 Scores for practice performance, competition performance, parental evaluation, and learning/improving skills received ratings between 3 and 4 (somewhat to very important) for all skill levels. Thus gymnasts at all skill levels used all sources of competence information, but to varying degrees. Does Perceived Motivational Climate Differ by Skill Level? To answer the second research question, a MANOVA was performed using skill level (5 6, 7, 8 10) and age (12, 13, 14 years) as the independent variables in main effects designs, and the six motivational climate subscales as the dependent variables. Subscale scores were calculated by averaging the items comprising each subscale. Correlations among climate subscales indicated no multicollinearity (range =.05 to.64 ). The skill level effect was not significant, Wilks =.89, F(12, 190) = 0.95, p <.51. Means and standard deviations for all variables are shown in Table 4. These results indicate that gymnasts in various skill level divisions did not differ in their perceptions of task- and ego-involving climates of their gyms. The age main effect was significant, Wilks =.80, F(12, 190) = 1.86, p <.042. The strength of association (1 ) indicated that 20% of the variance in perceived motivational climate was attributable to age differences. Follow-up univariate ANOVAs (p <.05) and discriminant function coefficients (.30) were examined to determine which climate dimensions distinguished the three age groups. These were unequal recognition and intrateam rivalry (performance climate) and effort/ importance and cooperative learning (mastery climate). SNK post-hocs (p <.05) revealed that 14-year-olds scored higher on unequal recognition and intrateam rivalry dimensions (i.e., performance climate) than 12-year-olds, and that 13-yearolds scored higher on unequal recognition than 12-year-olds. Descriptive differences showed that 12- and 13-year-olds scored higher on the effort/improvement dimension (i.e., mastery climate) than did 14-year-olds. For cooperative learning, 13-year- Table 4 Skill Level Means (± SD) for Perceived Motivational Climate Subscales (N = 103) Levels 5 6 Level 7 Levels 8 10 Climate (n = 42) (n = 31) (n = 30) subscale M SD M SD M SD Performance Climate Punishment for mistakes Unequal recognition Intrateam rivalry Mastery Climate Cooperative learning Important role Effort & improvement

15 410 / Halliburton and Weiss Table 5 Means (± SD), Univariate F, and Discriminant Function Coefficients for Perceived Motivational Subscales (N = 103) 12 years 13 years 14 years Climate (n = 43) (n = 42) (n = 18) Univar. Discr. subscale M SD M SD M SD F coeff. Performance Climate Punishment for mistakes *.235 Unequal recognition *.512 Intrateam rivalry *.608 Mastery Climate Cooperative learning Important role Effort & improvement *p <.05 olds scored lower than 12- and 14-year-olds. Univariate-F and discriminant coefficients, and means and standard deviations, for the age main effect on motivational climate dimensions can be seen in Table 5. Are Sources of Competence Information and Perceived Motivational Climate Related? To examine the relationship between sources of competence information and perceived motivational climate, we performed a multivariate multiple regression analysis using the motivational climate subscales as the predictor variables and the sources of competence information factors as the criterion variables. The relationship between these variables was significant, Wilks =.27, F(54, 453) = 2.47, p <.001. Two canonical functions were significant. The canonical correlations for Functions 1 and 2 were Rc =.61 and.58, respectively, indicating a moderately strong association between the two sets of variables. Canonical loadings represent the relative contribution of each variable to the multivariate relationship. Variables with loadings of.30 or higher are considered significant contributors to the relationship between the sets of variables (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996). Table 6 depicts the loadings for both functions. For the first canonical function, loadings for the predictor variables indicated that all three egoinvolving climate dimensions (punishment for mistakes, unequal recognition, intrateam rivalry) and one task-involving dimension (important role) contributed to the relationship. Criterion variables that contributed significantly were effort/ enjoyment, peer comparison/evaluation, competition performance, and learning/ improving skills. Essentially, perceptions of an ego-involving climate were positively related to the use of peer comparison/evaluation, competition performance, and learning/improving skills, and negatively related to effort/enjoyment as sources of gymnastics competence. Perceptions of a task-involving climate in the form of

16 Sources of Competence Information / 411 Table 6 Canonical Loadings for the Relationship Between Sources of Competence Information and Perceived Motivational Climate (N = 103) Canonical Loadings Variables Function 1 Function 2 Predictor Variables Punishment for mistakes Unequal recognition Intrateam rivalry Cooperative learning Important role Effort & improvement Criterion Variables Effort and enjoyment Peer comparison/evaluation Competition performance Parent evaluation Learning/Improving skills Practice performance Feelings of nervousness Spectator feedback Achievement of self-set goals all gymnasts occupying an important role was positively associated with effort/ enjoyment and negatively associated with peer comparison/evaluation, competition performance, and learning/improving skills as sources of gymnastics competence. For the second function, loadings for the predictor variables revealed that all three task-involving dimensions (cooperative learning, important role, and effort/ improvement) and one ego-involving dimension (unequal recognition) were significant contributors to the relationship. Criterion variables that were important contributors were sources in the form of effort/enjoyment, practice performance, and achievement of self-set goals. Essentially, perceptions of a task-involving climate were positively related to the use of effort/enjoyment, practice performance, and achievement of self-set goals as sources of gymnastics competence. Perceptions of an ego-involving climate in the form of coaches giving unequal recognition to gymnasts were negatively related to gymnastics sources of effort/enjoyment, performance in practice, and self-set goals. The effect size is represented by the redundancy index, which indicates the percentage of variance explained in one set of variables by the other set. The re-

17 412 / Halliburton and Weiss dundancy in the competence information sources explained by perceived motivational climate was 8.6%. This value falls below the recommended 10% criterion denoting significance (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996). These results suggest that perceptions of a mastery climate in terms of emphasis in the gym on effort and improvement, the important role of gymnasts, and cooperative learning among gymnasts are associated with gymnasts use of effort and enjoyment, performance in practice, and achievement of self-set goals as sources of information. Perceptions of a performance climate in terms of unequal recognition among gymnasts, punishment for mistakes, and intrateam rivalry among gymnasts were associated with the use of peer comparison/evaluation, competition performance, and learning/improving skills. Items comprising the learning/improving skills source included how quick or slow I am in learning skills ; whether or not it takes me a long time to learn a new skill ; whether or not I m getting any better at gymnastics ; and whether or not I am any better at gymnastics than I was last year. At face value it appears that these items represent self-referenced improvement, but given this factor s positive association with a performance climate they may actually have been interpreted by gymnasts in a norm-referenced way (e.g., how quick or slow I am in learning skills compared to other gymnasts in my skill level). Discussion Do Sources of Competence Information Differ by Skill Level? The first purpose of the present study was to examine skill level differences in sources of competence information used by adolescent gymnasts (ages years). It was hypothesized that gymnasts competing at lower skill levels would use more self-referenced sources of information such as effort, improvement, and enjoyment, while gymnasts competing at higher levels would use more normreferenced information sources such as peer comparison and competition performance statistics. This hypothesis was partially supported. Gymnasts competing at lower skill levels rated effort/enjoyment as more important than did those competing at higher levels. By contrast, gymnasts competing at higher skill levels considered feelings of nervousness more important, which does not support the hypothesis. However, in the sport of gymnastics, nervous feelings are mainly associated with competition and performance that are typically viewed as norm-referenced sources of information. Additionally, items comprising feelings of nervousness implied anxiety experienced before meets and during practice. Gymnasts competing at higher levels might experience more performance-related anxiety, as their required skills are more difficult and fear-provoking. Thus the finding that gymnasts competing at higher levels perceived feelings of nervousness as a more salient information source than those competing at lower levels is not surprising. Gymnasts competing at higher skill levels (8 10) considered spectator feedback to be more important than did those at lower levels (5 6, 7). Similar to feelings of nervousness, spectators are associated with competition, as the items comprising the spectator feedback factor referred to audiences at gymnastics meets. These audiences usually consist of significant others such as parents and friends. Because the audience provides evaluative feedback about gymnasts performances

18 Sources of Competence Information / 413 and because competition is more intense for higher level gymnasts, it is not surprising that gymnasts competing at higher levels considered spectator feedback to be a more salient source of competence information than those competing at lower levels. A unique finding was that achievement of self-set goals was considered less important by Level 7 gymnasts than by those competing at Levels 5 6 and Levels Recall that those at Level 7 were considered a single chunk for data analysis purposes due to the uniqueness of this level. They are afforded the opportunity to hide their weaknesses and capitalize on their strengths due to the flexibility in difficulty requirements. Also, gymnasts who do not have the desire or physical ability to progress beyond Level 7 can successfully compete at this level for several years. Thus, perhaps gymnasts competing at this level have lower perceptions of their future potential in the sport and may not be as active in setting goals for themselves. Our findings support those of studies examining age group differences. Horn et al. (1993) found that adolescent girls competing in various sports relied heavily on the use of internal, self-referenced information, spectator feedback, and peers for competence information. Weiss et al. (1997) also found that peer comparison and evaluation was an important source of competence information for adolescents. The present study supports these findings, as gymnasts relied heavily on effort and enjoyment, as well as spectator feedback and peer comparison/evaluation. The notion of individuals using particular sources of information to judge their ability emanates from Harter s (1978, 1981) competence motivation theory. According to the model, if individuals receive unconditional approval and positive reinforcement for independent mastery attempts and not just for performance outcome, they begin to rely more heavily on independent judgments and self-set goals for assessing competence and rely less on external reinforcement and goals. The present study supports this notion, as gymnasts competing at all skill levels reported that effort and enjoyment, feelings of nervousness, and achievement of selfset goals were very important in helping them determine how good they were at gymnastics. Contrary to the theory, however, gymnasts still considered external or norm-referenced sources of information such as performance in competition and practice to be important. This is likely due to the nature of competitive gymnastics, wherein athletes are keenly aware of their scores at meets and how they compare to their teammates. Does Perceived Motivational Climate Differ by Skill Level? The second purpose of this study was to examine differences in perceived motivational climate among gymnasts competing at various skill levels. It was hypothesized that gymnasts of all skill levels would perceive both a mastery and a performance climate, but to relatively different degrees. Gymnasts competing at lower skill levels were expected to perceive more of a mastery motivational climate whereas those competing at higher levels were expected to perceive more of a performance climate. This hypothesis was partially supported, as gymnasts competing at all skill levels did perceive both a mastery and a performance climate. All skill levels were high in perceptions of a mastery climate (M = 4 and above) and relatively lower in perceptions of a performance climate (M = 3 and below). Results revealed no significant differences in perceived motivational climate by gym-

19 414 / Halliburton and Weiss nasts competing at different skill levels, although several trends were in the expected direction. For all the performance climate dimensions, mean scores were higher for Levels 8 10 than for the other levels as expected. Our results regarding high perceptions of a mastery motivational climate across skill levels support previous research. For example, Chaumeton and Duda (1988) looked at the relationship between coaching behaviors, goal perspective/ perceived goal emphasis, and skill level among basketball players in elementary through high school. Results indicated that while athletes at higher skill levels perceived greater emphasis on performance outcome, there were no skill level differences in goal emphasis on task mastery. Athletes at all skill levels rated taskinvolving behaviors such as skill development as very important. In contrast to nonsignificant differences in perceived motivational climate by skill level, age differences were uncovered. Specifically, 13- and 14-year-olds scored higher on perceived performance climate dimensions than did 12-year-olds. Thus, lack of skill level differences are explained in part by age differences in this group of gymnasts. These results may be related to the possibility that younger gymnasts (age 12) were more likely to be at the lower skill levels while older gymnasts were more prevalent at the higher skill levels where performance is more highly emphasized (see Table 1). Unfortunately, the small n s in some cells prevented looking at the age skill level interaction to determine whether perceptions of the motivational climate are particularly marked for older gymnasts at the higher skill levels. Are Sources of Competence Information and Perceived Motivational Climate Related? The third purpose of the present study was to examine the relationship between sources of competence information and perceived motivational climate. We hypothesized that perceptions of a mastery climate would be related to the use of self-referenced sources of competence information while perceptions of a performance climate would be related to the use of norm-referenced sources of competence information. Some results revealed conceptually consistent findings. Perceptions of a mastery climate (all subscales) were positively related to the use of effort/enjoyment and achievement of self-set goals. As effort/enjoyment and achievement of self-set goals are self-referenced sources of information, these findings supported the hypothesis. Similarly, perceptions of a mastery motivational climate in terms of important role were also negatively related to the use of peer evaluation/ comparison and competition performance. Finally, perceptions of a performance climate (all subscales) were negatively related to the use of effort and enjoyment and positively related to the use of peer comparison/evaluation and competition performance. Contrary to hypotheses, perceptions of a performance motivational climate were positively related to the use of learning/improving skills while perceptions of a mastery motivational climate (important role) were negatively related to the use of this source. Since the items that loaded together on this factor imply normreferenced skill improvement as a means of evaluating individual skill acquisition and improvement, this finding makes conceptual sense. Norm-referenced success is characteristic of a performance climate.

20 Sources of Competence Information / 415 Use of practice performance as a competence information source was positively related to perceptions of a mastery climate and negatively related to perceptions of a performance climate (unequal recognition). Inspection of items that comprise the practice performance source revealed that several items refer to selfreferenced judgments of performance outcome. Items include whether or not I make my routines in practice ; whether or not I stick my routines in practice ; and whether or not I perform the way I expect to in practice. Such judgments could be considered individualized to each gymnast, helping to explain the positive relationship of this source to perceptions of a mastery climate. Ames (1992a, 1992b) notion of the perceived motivational climate has received attention in both the academic and sport domains (see Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1999; Weiss & Ferrer-Caja, 2002). The present study extends the knowledge base by examining the relationship between perceived motivational climate and sources of competence information. This type of research is salient, as perceptions of the motivational climate influence sources of competence information, which are related to level and accuracy of perceived competence, affect, and ultimately achievement behaviors (Ames, 1992a; Harter, 1978, 1981). Limitation in Conducting Skill- and Age-Related Research There is an inherent confound when studying age and skill level differences in the sport domain (see Horn & Harris, 1996). Younger children are likely to participate at levels that focus on skill development and fun. As children get older, for example ages 10 12, they can move up to higher competitive leagues (e.g., club level soccer) or stay at a recreational level. By middle and senior high school, only the most skilled survive while those of lower skill are either cut by the coach or choose not to try out for a team. This was evident in our study in that the older gymnasts, age 14, were more scarce at Skill Levels 5 and 6 while 12-year-olds were more scarce at the highest two skill levels (Levels 9 and 10; see Table 1). This prevented us from running an analysis to determine whether skill level and age interact on sources of competence information and motivational climate. This is a limitation of the present study, and of any study that attempts to examine age and/or competitive level differences (e.g., Chaumeton & Duda, 1988; Horn et al., 1993). In an effort to neutralize this confound, we selected gymnasts from a very narrow age band (12 to 14 years) and chose a sport in which competing at higher skill levels is based on competencies, not age. Nevertheless, the study findings are potentially influenced by a confound of age and skill level. Future Research Directions This study provides an initial attempt to broaden research on the relationship among skill level, perceived motivational climate, and sources of competence information. As sources of competence information are related to perceptions of competence, motivated behavior, and overall self-worth, expanding research in this area is a salient task. To date, research on level, accuracy, and sources of perceived competence has predominantly examined age and gender differences (see Weiss & Ferrer-Caja, 2002). Developmental research that goes beyond these variables to include competitive level would provide rich information that could be used to educate coaches, athletes, and parents.