A Pilot Study of Empathy and Counselor Self- Efficacy Among Graduate Students in a Predominantly Hispanic Counseling Psychology Program

Transcription

1 A Pilot Study of Empathy and Counselor Self- Efficacy Among Graduate Students in a Predominantly Hispanic Counseling Psychology Program Mónica E. Muñoz, George Potter, and Mary R. Chavez

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3 1 The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence: Research, Theory, and Practice Contact Information: Emotional Intelligence Training & Research Institute (EITRI) P.O. Box Corpus Christi, TX Editors: Richard Hammett Gary Low Darwin Nelson 2013 by the Emotional Intelligence Training & Research Institute. All rights reserved. i

4 6 Empathy and Counselor Self-Efficacy 51 A Pilot Study of Empathy and Counselor Self-Efficacy Among Graduate Students in a Predominantly Hispanic Counseling Psychology Program Mónica E. Muñoz, George Potter, and Mary R. Chavez Emotional intelligence (EI) models suggest that emotional competencies can be developed to achieve optimal performance in various areas. The construct has been linked to successful academic and career performance. One profession that may benefit from targeted training in emotional intelligence skills is counseling psychology. The current study examined the relationships between emotional intelligence skills, perceived counselor self-efficacy, and dispositional empathy dimensions in a first year cohort of counseling psychology graduate students. Identifying those emotional skills most strongly related to feelings of counseling self-efficacy may help in designing targeted training for future programs. Introduction The term Emotional Intelligence suggests a general capacity that is innate and includes emotional competences which can be developed to achieve optimal performance (Goleman, 1998). A first formal theory by Salovey and Mayer (1990) presented Emotional Intelligence as a set of abilities that contribute to accurate appraisal, expression, and regulation of emotions in oneself and others, as well as the use of emotions as motivation toward achievement. Researchers find that Emotional Intelligence is a factor in one s emotional wellbeing (Taylor, Parker & Bagby, 1999) and a significant predictor of success in one s academic and work performance (Parker, Summerfeldt, Hogan, & Majeski, 2004). Recent research findings suggest that overall Emotional Intelligence may be important in identifying those oriented towards a career in counseling (Martin, Easton, Wilson, Takemoto, & Sullivan, 2004). Additionally, emotional intelligence has been found to be related to counseling self-efficacy (Martin, et al., 2004). Counseling self-efficacy (CSE) is one s subjective assessment about his or her capabilities to counsel, and it is positively related to counselor training level (Larson & Daniels, 1998). According to Larson et al (1992), counseling self-efficacy can be understood in terms of five dimensions: confidence in executing microskills, attending to process, dealing with difficult client behaviors, behaving in a culturally competent way, and being aware of one s own values. As mastery of counseling skills increases, trainees develop more confidence in their skills and, in turn, more effectiveness as counselors. According to Larson and Daniels, those with strong CSE beliefs are more likely to persevere in the face of difficult counselor tasks. If there is a strong relationship between dimensions of emotional intelligence and counseling selfefficacy, counseling psychology graduate students could benefit greatly from training to develop key emotional intelligence skills related to confidence in their professional counseling performance. The relationship between Emotional Intelligence and counseling self-efficacy may be further illuminated by examining empathy. While it has been well documented that empathy is necessary for a successful counselor-client relationship (Clark, 2010; Rogers, 1957), and that expert counselors list empathy among the top five personal characteristics of effective counselors (Pope & Kline, 1999), the relationship between empathy and counseling self-efficacy has not been investigated sufficiently. Counselor training models tend to emphasize the acquisition of intuitive skills that include empathy (e.g., Smaby, Maddux, Torres-Rivera & Zimmick, 1999), or at least the ability to act empathic, even without the actual experience of empathy (Greason & Cashwell, 2009). The increased training-related feeling of being empathic may enhance beliefs of counselor self-efficacy. Empathy and Emotional Intelligence, however, have long been linked. Davis s (1983) multidimensional view of empathy includes the affective component of empathic concern and

5 The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence 52 the cognitive component of perspective taking, and these dimensions have correlated well with different measures of Emotional Intelligence (Miville, Carlozzi, Gushue, Schara & Ueda, 2006; Extremera & Fernández-Berrocal, 2004). Additionally, many conceptions of Emotional Intelligence include descriptions of empathy as a key related skill. For instance, the Emotional Skills Assessment Process (ESAP; Nelson & Low, 1999; 2003) includes an Empathy scale, as empathy is considered an important Emotional Intelligence skill under their Leadership skills factor. If empathy and counselor self-efficacy are responsive to formal training, then both of these could benefit from training in Emotional Intelligence skills. It is important, then, to understand the relationship between these three constructs, early during a counseling psychology graduate training program, so that progress can be noted. The purpose of the current research, therefore, was to examine the relationship between Emotional Intelligence, dimensions of empathy and counselor selfefficacy in a first-year cohort of (Hispanic) counseling psychology graduate students. The ESAP was deemed appropriate for this study, as it reflects thirteen specific Emotional Intelligence skills to be analyzed, and it assesses areas where intervention strategies are necessary. Participants Method Ten first year graduate students (8 females, 2 males) enrolled in the Master of Arts in Counseling Psychology (MACP) program at Texas A&M International University (TAMIU) volunteered to participate in this study in exchange for extra credit in an introductory counseling psychology graduate course. Most participants were Hispanic (90%), with an average age of 24.3 years. Emotional intelligence Measures To assess emotional intelligence, the Emotional Skills Assessment Process (ESAP; Nelson & Low, 1999; 2003) was used. It consists of 213 items which assess ten emotional skill dimensions, along with three problem area indicators. Responses to each item are made using a 3 points scale (2 = most descriptive, 1 = sometimes descriptive, 0 = not descriptive). Scores are generally reported in a profile for each participant, using T scores that fall into three categories (develop, strengthen or enhance) for emotional intelligence skills and into three categories (low, normal or high) for problem area indicators. Factor analyses have revealed five factors (Nelson & Low, 2003): Interpersonal skills. Assertion (18 items, range: 0-36) is one s ability to communicate in a straightforward style that conveys both cognitive and emotional messages. Assertive people respect the sender of a message, and they deal constructively with difficult or emotional situations. Leadership skills. Comfort (12 items, range: 0-24) deals with the ability to read and impact others with verbal and non-verbal messages in a positive way. The ability to develop trust and rapport is an integral part of this skill. Comfort enables a person to be relaxed self-confident and be one s true self. Empathy (12 items, range: 0-24) is the facility to demonstrate care for others through congruent verbal and nonverbal actions. Empathy is the communication to another that his/her thoughts, feelings, and ideas matter. Empathy is closely associated to effective listening skills and conveying to another that he/she is understood. Decision Making (12 items, range: 0-24) is the ability to create, conceptually develop, and implement plans for successful problem solving. Leadership (12 items, range: 0-24) can be defined as the ability to persuade and develop the abilities of others. Self-management skills. Drive Strength (25 items, range: 0-50) is one s ability to accomplish goals and activities resulting in self-fulfillment and attainment of purpose. This skill includes the understanding and motivation behind the principles of setting goals, objectives, and activities. Time Management (12 items, range: 0-24) is the ability to focus and organize available time appropriately. Proactivity instead of reactivity is an appropriate understanding of this concept. Commitment Ethic (12 items, range: 0-24) is one s aptitude to finish needed tasks, complete assignments, and accomplish one s projects. Intrapersonal skills. Stress Management (25 items, range: 0-50) is the ability to control and deal effectively with fear or anxiety in relation to others and to situations. Self Esteem (25

6 Empathy and Counselor Self-Efficacy 53 items, range: 0-50) is the ability to view one s self as positive, competent, and successful. Self-esteem is closely associated with liking the self and being able to accept one s limits and faults. Problem area indicators. Aggression (18 items, range: 0-36) involves the emotion of anger and a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t y l e t h a t m a y b e overpowering enough to negatively affect relationships. Deference (18 items, range: 0-36) results in ineffective communications, often ambiguous, weak and misdirected, that negatively affect relationships. Deference is often involved with poor active listening skills and lack of empathy. Change Orientation (12 items, range: 0-24) is the degree to which an individual is or is not satisfied with current situations and the magnitude of change necessary or desired to develop personal and professional effectiveness. Empathy Empathy was measured using the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI; Davis, 1983), which consists of 28 items equally distributed across four subscales representing four dimensions of empathy: Empathic Concern (EC), Perspective Taking (PT), Personal Distress (PD) and Fantasy (FS). Responses range from 1 = does not describe me well to 5 = describes me very well. Items 3, 4, 7, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, and 19 are reverse scored. Only items on the EC and the PT subscales (14 items total) were used in the current study, as these tend to be the most reliable and most often used subscales (Davis, 1994). The EC subscale (Cronbach s α =.73) assesses the tendency to experience feelings of sympathy and compassion for others, while the PT subscale (Cronbach s α =.62) measures the degree to which an individual spontaneously takes the point of view of others in everyday life. Counselor self-efficacy The Counselor Self-Efficacy Scale (CSES, Melchert, Hays, Wiljanen, & Kolocek, 1996) consists of 20 items that assess self-perceptions of counseling-related skills such as knowledge of therapy principles, the ability to assess psychological states of clients and the ability to facilitate development of clients. Responses are made on a 5 point Likert-type scale (1 = disagree strongly to 5 = agree strongly). Previously reported Cronbach s α =.91. Procedure After signing a consent form, participants were assigned to a personal computer station, on which all questionnaires, including a demographics questionnaire, were administered. The ESAP was presented through the instrument publisher s online site, while the other measures were presented using MediaLab research software. ESAP responses were scored by the publishers, while all other responses were scored by the researchers. Descriptives Results Means and standard deviations for all scales are reported in Table 1. Cronbach s alphas calculated for the two IRI subscales and for the CSES proved consistent with those found in past research. For PT, Cronbach s α =.78, while for EC, Cronbach s α =.82. Cronbach s α for the CSES was.81. Correlational Analyses For the complete correlation matrix, see Table 2. ESAP assertion (r =.78, p <.01), ESAP decision making (r =.78, p <.01), and ESAP self-esteem (r =.73, p <.05) were significantly related to counselor self-efficacy. ESAP empathy (r =.76, p <.05) and ESAP drive strength (r =.93, p <.01) were significantly related to IRI empathic concern. ESAP comfort was significantly related to IRI perspective taking (r =.72, p <.05). IRI empathic concern and perspective taking were not significantly related to counselor self-efficacy. Discussion While empathy was not significantly related to self-efficacy, the empathic concern and perspective taking scales showed some significant relationships with some ESAP dimensions. The significant positive correlation between IRI empathic concern (EC) and ESAP Empathy is not surprising, since the operational definition of empathy put forward by Nelson and Low and that put forward by Davis are very similar. The relationship between IRI empathic concern and ESAP drive strength, however, is not easily interpreted. Further investigation is necessary to determine how empathic concern is related to the goal-related behavior associated with Drive Strength. IRI perspective taking (PT) is positively related to ESAP Comfort, a skill associated

7 The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence 54 with the ability to read others thinking and feeling states. This is in line with perspective taking as a tendency to carry out cognitive processing in the interest of understanding another. This cognitive exercise generally involves putting oneself in another s shoes, and imagining how he or she views the world. Reading others and eventually understanding others are crucial skills for professional counselors, and skills emotional intelligence training may enhance. The ESAP emotional intelligence skills associated with effective communication (Assertion), problem-solving (Decision- Making) and feelings of competency (Self- Esteem) proved to be the most strongly associated with counselor self-efficacy. These results are in line with most of what Larson et al (1992) describe as the five dimensions of perceived self-efficacy as a counselor. Past research with counselor performance measures has revealed similar relationships. In Flowers and Goldman (1976), ten weeks of assertion training resulted in improved counseling performance in the form of clearer communication with a client. Berven and Scofield (1980) reported that counseling students exhibited performance at the level of that of experienced counselors following clinical problem solving training. Additionally, clients who initially reported low self-esteem showed improvement after working with counselors who reported high self-esteem (Wiggins & Giles, 1984). The findings from the current study show strong relationships between key emotional intelligence skills and counselor self-efficacy and those from past research, show similar relationships with counselor performance. Counseling psychology programs may consider designing training programs to include emotional intelligence skills interventions, with a strong emphasis on these particular skills. This may serve to increase students confidence in their counseling skills and, eventually, to improve their professional performance. References Berven, N.L., & Scofield, M.E. (1980). Evaluation of clinical problem-solving through standardized case management simulations. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 27, doi: // Clark, A.J. (2010). Empathy: An integral model in the counseling process. Journal of Counseling & Development, 88, doi: /j tb00032.x Davis, M. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, doi: / Davis, M. (1994). Empathy: A social psychological approach. Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark Publishers. Extremera, N., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2004). The role of student s emotional intelligence: Empirical evidence. Revista Electrónica de Investigación Educativa, 6. Retrieved December 14, 2011, from redie,ens.uabc.mx/vol6no2/contentsextremera.html Flowers, J.V., & Goldman, R.D. (1976). Assertion training for mental health paraprofessionals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 23, doi: // Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books. Greason, P.B., & Cashwell, C.S. (2009). Mindfulness and counseling self-efficacy. The mediating role of attention and empathy. Counselor Education and Supervision, 49, doi: /j tb00083.x Larson, L. M., & Daniels, J.A. (1998). Review of the counseling self-efficacy literature. The Counseling Psychologist, 26, doi: / Larson, L. M., Suzuki, L. A., Gillespie, K. N., Potenza, M. T., Bechtel, M. A., & Toulouse, A. L. (1992). Development and validation of the Counseling Self-Estimate Inventory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 39, doi: / Martin, W.E., Easton, C., Wilson, S., Takemoto, M., & Sullivan, S. (2004) Salience of emotional intelligence as a core characteristic of being a counselor. Counselor Education & Supervision, 44, doi: /j tb01857.x Melchert, T.P., Hays, V.L., Wiljanen, L.M., & Kolocek, A.K. (1996). Testing models of counselor development with a measure of

8 Empathy and Counselor Self-Efficacy 55 counseling self-efficacy. Journal of Counseling & Development, 74, doi: /j tb02304.x Miville, M.L., Carlozzi, A.F., Gushue, G.V., Schara, S. L., & Ueda, M. (2006). Mental health counselor qualities for a diverse clientele: Linking empathy, universaldiverse orientation, and emotional intelligence. Journal or Mental Health Counseling, 28, Nelson, D., & Low, G. (1999). Exploring and developing emotional intelligence skills. Kingsville, TX: EI Learning Systems. Nelson, D., & Low, G. (2003). Emotional intelligence: Achieving academic and career excellence. UpperSaddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Parker, J.D.A., Summerfeldt, L.J., Hogan, M.J., & Majeski, S. (2004). Emotional intelligence and academic success: Examining the transition from high school to university. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, doi: / S (03)00076-X Pope, V.T., & Kline, W.B. (1999). The personal characteristics of effective counselors: What 10 experts think. Psychological Reports, 84, doi: / PR Rogers, C.R. (1957). The necessary and sufficient conditions for therapeutic personality change. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 21, doi: / h Salovey, P., & Mayer, J.D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9, doi: / DUGG-P24E-52WK-6CDG Smaby, M.H., Maddux, C.D., Torres-Rivera, D., & Zimmick, R. (1999). A study of the effects of a skills-based versus a conventional group counseling training program. Journal of Specialist in Group Work, 24, doi: / Taylor, G.J., Parker, J.D.A., Bagby, R. M. (1999). Emotional intelligence and the emotional brain: Points of convergence and implications for psychoanalysis. Journal of American Academy of Psychoanalysis, 27, Wiggins, J.D., & Giles, T.A. (1984). The relationship between counselors and students self-esteem as related to counseling outcomes. School Counselor, 32, Author Note Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to any of the following: George Potter, Ed.D University Blvd, KL 426D, Laredo, TX George.potter@tamiu.edu.