Active sensing. Ehud Ahissar 1

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1 Active sensing Ehud Ahissar 1

2 Active sensing Passive vs active touch Comparison across senses Basic coding principles Perceptual loops Sensation-targeted motor control Proprioception Controlled variables Active vibrissal touch: encoding and recoding 2

3 Eye movements during fixation 3

4 sensory encoding: What receptors tell the brain Sensory organs consist of receptor arrays: somatosensation audition vision ~200 m Finger pad 10 m cochlea 10 m retina Spatial organization => Spatial coding ( which receptors are activated ) Movements => Temporal coding ( when are receptors activated ) 4

5 Temporal coding in action 5

6 Coding space by time 1. Spatial frequency 2. Spatial phase 6

7 Touch: Temporal encoding of spatial features Darian-Smith & Oke, J Physiol, 1980 anesth. monkey, MR fibers 7

8 RA fiber Vel - constant f = SF * V dt = dx / V 8

9 SF Vel SA fiber 9

10 SF Vel RA fiber V1 V2 V3 G1 G2 G3 10

11 SF Vel PC fiber 11

12 Coding ranges 12

13 Coding space by time 1. Spatial frequency 2. Spatial phase 13

14 Vision: Temporal encoding due to eye movement space Veye RF(1) RF(2) space retinal outputs 1 2 time 14

15 Vision: Temporal encoding due to eye movement x space Veye RF(1) RF(2) space retinal outputs 1 2 t time 15

16 Vision: Temporal encoding due to eye movement x space Veye RF(1) RF(2) space retinal outputs 1 2 t time 16

17 Vision: Temporal encoding due to eye movement x space Veye RF(1) RF(2) space retinal outputs 1 2 t time 17

18 Vision: Temporal encoding due to eye movement x space Veye RF(1) RF(2) space retinal outputs 1 2 t time 18

19 Spatial vs temporal coding Spatial Temporal faster better resolution scanning allows sensing in between receptors 19

20 Passive vs Active sensing of stationary objects Passive Active threshold low high accuracy low high Systems involved sensory Sensory + motor coding spatial Spatial + temporal Processing speed fast slow Used in detection Exploration Localization Identification 20

21 Central processing of touch where touch begins? at the receptors? with sensor movement? in high brain centers? 21

22 Sensory-motor loops of the vibrissal system Cortex Primary Sensory Cortex Secondary Primary Motor Cortex Zona Incerta VPM-dm VPM-vl Thalamus POm - VL Thalamic Nuclei Sensory extralemniscal Cerebellar/Olivary Red Nucleus Pontine Reticular Nucleus Superior Colliculus Brainstem Reticular Formation Motor Trigeminal Nuclei Brainstem Loop + Facial Nucleus Trigeminal Ganglion Vibrissae 22

23 Sensory-motor loops of the vibrissal system Cortex E D C Identification ( what ) Localization ( where ) B Whisking A m a The old view Thalamus WT T W Brainstem WT T W 23

24 Sensory-motor loops of the vibrissal system Cortex Primary Sensory Cortex Secondary Primary Motor Cortex Zona Incerta VPM-dm VPM-vl Thalamus POm - VL Thalamic Nuclei Sensory extralemniscal Cerebellar/Olivary Red Nucleus Pontine Reticular Nucleus Superior Colliculus Brainstem Reticular Formation Motor Trigeminal Nuclei Brainstem Loop + Facial Nucleus Trigeminal Ganglion Vibrissae 24

25 Cortex E D C Identification ( what ) Localization ( where ) B Whisking A m a Thalamus WT T W Brainstem WT T W 25

26 Sensory-motor loops of the vibrissal system E D C B A m a WT T W WT T W 26

27 Central processing of touch where touch begins? at the receptors? with sensor movement? in high brain centers? Active touch does not begin at the receptors 27

28 Motor control Closed loops Proprioceptive feedback Reflexes tool for probing loop function Controlled variables motor vs sensory 28

29 Motor control Closed loops Proprioceptive feedback Reflexes tool for probing loop function Controlled variables motor vs sensory 29

30 Excitation Contraction Coupling Phase 1: Firing of Motor Neuron Input to motorneuron Phase 2: Release of Neurotransmitter 30

31 Excitation Contraction Coupling Phase 1: Firing of Motor Neuron Input to motorneuron Phase 2: Release of Neurotransmitter Phase 3: Muscle contraction 31

32 Open-loop system Information flows in one direction (from neurons to muscles Input to motorneuron 32

33 Open-loop system Information flows in one direction (from neurons to muscles Closed-loop system Input to motorneuron Information flows in a closed loop: from neurons to muscles and from muscles to neurons What kind of information? 33

34 Closed-loop system The direct feedback from muscles and joints is mediated by proprioceptive signals Proprioceptive receptor types Name: Muscle spindle receptors Golgi tendon organs Joint receptors Sensitive to: muscle length muscle tension Flexion, extension 34

35 Proprioceptive receptor types Name: Muscle spindle receptors Golgi tendon organs Joint receptors Sensitive to: muscle length muscle tension Flexion, extension Location: Fleshy part of the muscle Between muscle and tendon Joint capsule Parallel to muscle fibers Serial to muscle fibers 35 Between bones

36 Proprioceptive receptor types Name: Muscle spindle receptors Golgi tendon organs Joint receptors Sensitive to: muscle length muscle tension Flexion, extension 36

37 Motor control Closed loops Proprioceptive feedback Reflexes tool for probing loop function Controlled variables motor vs sensory 37

38 What proprioceptors encode? 38

39 Proprioceptive receptor types Name: Muscle spindle receptors Golgi tendon organs Joint receptors Sensitive to: muscle length muscle tension Flexion, extension From Arthur Prochazka, University of Alberta 39

40 Proprioceptive receptor types Name: Muscle spindle receptors Golgi tendon organs Joint receptors Sensitive to: muscle length muscle tension Flexion, extension Encode: force f = k 1 F 40

41 Proprioceptive receptor types Name: Muscle spindle receptors Golgi tendon organs Joint receptors Sensitive to: muscle length muscle tension Flexion, extension Encode: Length + velocity f = k 1 L + k 2 V 0.6 force f = k 1 F angle f = k 1 41

42 Proprioceptive receptor types Name: Muscle spindle receptors Golgi tendon organs Joint receptors Sensitive to: muscle length muscle tension Flexion, extension Encode: Length + velocity f = k 1 L + k 2 V 0.6 force f = k 1 F angle f = k 1 42

43 PID control Proportional (to the controlled variable) Integral (of the controlled variable) Derivative (of the controlled variable) Present Past Future 43

44 Negative feedback loop Characteristic: The effect of a perturbation is in opposite direction Requirement: The cumulative sign along the loop is negative Function: Can keep stable fixed points 44

45 Positive feedback loop Characteristic: The effect of a perturbation is in the same direction Requirement: The cumulative sign along the loop is positive Function: amplifies perturbations + 45

46 Motor control Closed loops Proprioceptive feedback Reflexes tool for probing loop function Controlled variables motor vs sensory 46

47 The stretch reflex probes the control function of muscle spindles 47

48 Is the loop positive or negative? The stroke stretches the spindle As a result the muscle contracts The result opposes the perturbation => negative FB loop 48

49 the anatomical loop Muscle spindle excites the motor neuron Motor neuron excites muscle fibers Muscle contraction suppresses spindle response 49

50 Proprioceptive receptor types Name: Muscle spindle receptors Golgi tendon organs Joint receptors Sensitive to: muscle length muscle tension Flexion, extension Encode: force f = k 1 F Why spindles fire at rest? 50

51 What about the flexor muscles? Positive or negative loop? What is the underlying circuit? 51

52 Pain reflex Positive or negative? What is the underlying 52 circuit?

53 Motor control Closed loops Proprioceptive feedback Reflexes tool for probing loop function Controlled variables motor vs sensory 53

54 Sensory-motor loops of the vibrissal system Cortex Primary Sensory Cortex Secondary Primary Motor Cortex Zona Incerta VPM-dm VPM-vl Thalamus POm - VL Thalamic Nuclei Sensory extralemniscal Cerebellar/Olivary Red Nucleus Pontine Reticular Nucleus Superior Colliculus Brainstem Reticular Formation Motor Trigeminal Nuclei Brainstem Loop + Facial Nucleus Trigeminal Ganglion Vibrissae 54

55 Basic principles of closed-loop control 55

56 Set point - + Vd f Vs Vm=f(-Vs) Vs=g(Vm) Vs Vm V s0 V m0 Vm V 56

57 Set point - + Vd f Vs Vm=f(Vd-Vs) Vs=g(Vm) Vs Vm V s0 Vsd V md V m0 Vm V 57

58 Direct control without direct connection - + Vd f Vs Vm=f(Vd-Vs) Vs=g(Vm) Vs Vm V s0 Vsd V md V m0 Vm V 58

59 Nested loops + - f Vd f Vs Vm=f(Vd-Vs) Vs=g(Vm) Vs Vm V s0 Vsd V md V m0 Vm V 59

60 Parallel loops + - f 2 Vs Vm2=f(Vd-Vs)Vs=g(Vm2) - + f Vm2 V s0 Vsd V md V m0 Vm2 Vs Vm1 Vs V s0 Vsd Vm1=f(Vd-Vs)Vs=g(Vm1) V V md V m0 Vm1 60

61 Parallel loops + - f 2 Xs Xm=f(Xd-Xs) Xs=g(Xm) - + f Xm X s0 Xsd X md X m0 Xm Xs Vs Vm Vs Vm=f(Vd-Vs) Vs=g(Vm) V s0 Vsd V V md V m0 Vm1 61

62 Closed loops in active sensing The controlled variables can be f 2 + f Motor (via Xs) (velocity, amplitude, duration, direction, ) Sensory (Xs) (Intensity, phase, ) Object (via Xm Xs relationships) (location, SF, identity, ) Xs Vs Vm Xm V 62

63 Servo control Vm = (Vd-Vs)dt - + Vdesired Vs Vm= Vs= Vmotor Vd = V s0 Vsensed V m0 Vm V 63

64 Sensory-motor loops of the vibrissal system Cortex Primary Sensory Cortex Secondary Primary Motor Cortex Zona Incerta VPM-dm VPM-vl Thalamus POm - VL Thalamic Nuclei Sensory extralemniscal Cerebellar/Olivary Red Nucleus Pontine Reticular Nucleus Superior Colliculus Brainstem Reticular Formation Motor Trigeminal Nuclei Brainstem Loop + Facial Nucleus Trigeminal Ganglion Vibrissae 64

65 Sensory-motor loops of the vibrissal system Cortex Primary Sensory Cortex Secondary Primary Motor Cortex Zona Incerta VPM-dm VPM-vl Thalamus POm - VL Thalamic Nuclei Sensory extralemniscal Cerebellar/Olivary Red Nucleus Pontine Reticular Nucleus Superior Colliculus Brainstem Reticular Formation Motor Trigeminal Nuclei Brainstem Loop + Facial Nucleus Trigeminal Ganglion Vibrissae 65

66 Sensory-motor loops of the vibrissal system Cortex Primary Sensory Cortex Secondary Primary Motor Cortex Zona Incerta VPM-dm VPM-vl Thalamus POm - VL Thalamic Nuclei Sensory extralemniscal Cerebellar/Olivary Red Nucleus Pontine Reticular Nucleus Superior Colliculus Brainstem Reticular Formation Motor Trigeminal Nuclei Brainstem Loop + Facial Nucleus Trigeminal Ganglion Vibrissae 66

67 Sensory-motor loops of the vibrissal system Cortex Primary Sensory Cortex Secondary Primary Motor Cortex Zona Incerta VPM-dm VPM-vl Thalamus POm - VL Thalamic Nuclei Sensory extralemniscal Cerebellar/Olivary Red Nucleus Pontine Reticular Nucleus Superior Colliculus Brainstem Reticular Formation Motor Trigeminal Nuclei Brainstem Loop + Facial Nucleus Trigeminal Ganglion Vibrissae 67

68 Active sensing in the vibrissal system 68

69 Sensory signal conduction The vibrissal system 69

70 whisker Sensory signal conduction The vibrissal system Meisner Merkel Ruffini Lanceolate free endings 70

71 71

72 Sensory-motor loops of the vibrissal system Cortex Primary Sensory Cortex Secondary Primary Motor Cortex Zona Incerta VPM-dm VPM-vl Thalamus POm - VL Thalamic Nuclei Sensory extralemniscal Cerebellar/Olivary Red Nucleus Pontine Reticular Nucleus Superior Colliculus Brainstem Reticular Formation Motor Trigeminal Nuclei Brainstem Loop + Facial Nucleus Trigeminal Ganglion Vibrissae 72

73 Motor control of whiskers Intrinsic muscles 73 Dorfl J, 1982, J Anat 135:

74 Follicle as a motor-sensory junction Motor signals move the follicle and whisker Follicle receptors report back details of self motion = proprioception Plus perturbations of this motion caused by the external world Dorfl J, 1985, J Anat 142:

75 Reception of neuronal signals in the brain Exteroception reception of the external world via the six senses: sight, taste, smell, touch, hearing, and balance Interoception: reception of the internal organs of the body Proprioception (from "one's own" and reception) reception of the relationships between the body and the world. Afferent signals that relate to the external world contain: Reafferent (self-generated) sensory signals Exafferent (externally generated) sensory signals 75

76 Proprioceptive receptor types Name: Muscle spindle receptors Golgi tendon organs Joint receptors Sensitive to: muscle length muscle tension Flexion, extension 76

77 Motor control of whiskers Intrinsic muscles 77 Dorfl J, 1982, J Anat 135:

78 Vibrissal proprioception Each follicle contains ~2000 receptors About 20% of them convey pure proprioceptive information 78

79 Vibrissal system Skeletal system Proprioceptive loop Proprioceptive loop 79

80 Whiskers come with different muscle sizes Intrinsic muscles 0.5 mm 80 Dorfl J, 1982, J Anat 135:

81 Whisking behavior reflections of control loops 81

82 Closed loops in active sensing The controlled variables can be f 2 + f Motor (via Xs) (velocity, amplitude, duration) Sensory (Xs) (Intensity, phase, ) Object (via Xm Xs relationships) (location, SF, identity, ) Xs Vs Vm V Xm Tradeoffs Controlled versus modulated variables How to figure it out? perturbations 82

83 Vibrissal system Proprioceptive loop Skeletal system Proprioceptive loop Contact loop Contact loop? 83

84 Loop sign effect of context Negative contact loop Positive(?) contact loop Mitchinson, Martin, Grant, Prescott (2007) Proc R Soc Biol Sci 84

85 Perception of external objects Object localization What signals must the brain process in order to infer a location of an external object in space? Reafferent + exafferent signals 85

86 Mimicry of active touch Figure 22-8 The firing patterns of mechanoreceptors in the superficial layers of the skin encode the texture of objects rubbed across the skin. A. 1. The nerve responses to textures are measured with the hand immobilized. The receptive field of a single receptor on a monkey's finger is stimulated with an embossed array of raised dots on a rotating drum. The pattern moves horizontally over the receptive field as the drum rotates. The experimenter thus controls the speed of movement and the location of the dot pattern in the receptive field. The pattern is moved laterally on successive rotations to allow the dots to cross the medial, central, and lateral portions of the receptive field on successive rotations. The composite response of an individual nerve fiber to successive views of the raised dots simulates the distribution of active and inactive nerve fibers in the population. 2. Sequential action potentials discharged by individual receptors during each revolution of the drum are represented in spatial event plots in which each action potential is a small dot, and each horizontal row of dots represents a scan with the pattern shifted laterally on the finger. B. Spatial event plots of three types of mechanoreceptors to dot patterns with different spacing. Slowly adapting Merkel disk receptors and rapidly adapting Meissner's corpuscles differentiate between dots and blank space when the spacing of the dots exceeds the receptive field diameter. A receptor fires bursts of action potentials for each dot, spaced by silent intervals. As the dots are brought closer together, the resolution of individual dots blurs. Pacinian corpuscles do not distinguish texture patterns because their receptive fields are larger than the dot spacing. (Reproduced from Connor et al ) 86

87 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Reafference: Their own movement ( Whisking ) Exafference: Touch 87

88 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Whisking space Whisker position vs. time time 88

89 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Whisking space Whisker position vs. time time 89

90 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Whisking space Whisker position vs. time time 90

91 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Whisking space Whisker position vs. time time 91

92 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Whisking space Whisker position vs. time time 92

93 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Whisking space Whisker position vs. time time 93

94 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Whisking space Whisker position vs. time time 94

95 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Whisking space Whisker position vs. time time 95

96 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Whisking space Whisker position vs. time time 96

97 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Whisking space Whisker position vs. time time 97

98 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Whisking space Whisker position vs. time time 98

99 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Reafference: Their own movement ( Whisking ) Exafference: Touch 99

100 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Touch space Whisker position vs. time time 100

101 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Touch space Whisker position vs. time time 101

102 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Touch space Whisker position vs. time time 102

103 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Touch space Whisker position vs. time time 103

104 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Touch space Whisker position vs. time time 104

105 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Touch space Whisker position vs. time time 105

106 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Touch space Whisker position vs. time time 106

107 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Touch space Whisker position vs. time time 107

108 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Touch space Whisker position vs. time time 108

109 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Touch space Whisker position vs. time time 109

110 What the whiskers tell the rat brain Touch space Whisker position vs. time time 110

111 Whisking: What the whiskers tell the rat brain How can the brain use this information? space Whisker position vs. time time Touch: contact with object space Whisker position vs. time time 111

112 Whisking: What the whiskers tell the rat brain How can the brain use this information? space? Whisker position vs. time time Touch: contact with object space? Whisker position vs. time time 112

113 Whisking: How can the brain extract the location of the object space Whisker position vs. time time Touch: contact with object 113

114 Whisking: How can the brain extract the location of the object space Whisker position vs. time time Touch: contact with object 114

115 sensory encoding: What receptors tell the brain Sensory organs consist of receptor arrays: somatosensation audition vision ~200 m Finger pad 10 m cochlea 10 m retina Spatial organization => Spatial coding ( which receptors are activated ) Movements => Temporal coding ( when are receptors activated ) 115

116 Orthogonal coding of object location Vertical object position is encoded by space Horizontal object position is encoded by time Radialobject position is encoded by rate 116

117 Active sensing The End 117

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