PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PHENOMENOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION

Transcription

1 PAPER 197 PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PHENOMENOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION CARL JACOB SEVEREIDE Department of Psychology, University of Trondheim, Norway Research completed January The experience of pure consciousness during Transcendental Meditation was found to be closely associated with marked reductions in respiration rate and heart rate. The incidence of spontaneous skin resistance responses was also reduced during Transcendental Meditation. Subjects with clear experiences of pure consciousness had very few such responses even outside the practice, indicating great autonomic stability. Furthermore, descriptions of pure consciousness were highly consistent between subjects and concurred closely with classical descriptions of this state.-editors The following is an abbreviated version, translated from the Norwegian, of the author's original draft for his master's thesis, to be submitted to the Department of Psychology, University oftrondheim, for the degree of Magister Artium. The statistical analyses contained in this paper have been prepared by the editors from the author's original data. A psychophysiological and a phenomenological study were conducted to examine the experience of 'pure consciousness' during the Transcendental Meditation (TM) technique. Forty-five subjects together formed the psychophysiological group. Of these, 30 subjects were selected from advanced TM practitioners in the Trondheim district of Norway. This group was divided into two subgroups on the basis of experience of pure consciousness (PC) -the non-pc group and the PC group. Afurther 15 subjects formed the control group and were selected from people who had attended an introductory lecture on TM and who planned to learn the technique. Subjects participating in the phenomenological study included five subjects from the psychophysiological study who had experienced pure consciousness most often during the testing period and a group of 86 subjects from an advanced international TM course. During the psychophysiological experiment, which consisted of a 1 0-minute period sitting with eyes closed, a 20-minute period practising the Transcendental Meditation technique, and again a 1 0-minute period sitting with eyes closed, subjects were asked to signal the experience of pure consciousness by pressing a button at the beginning and the end of the experience. The control group was given a description of pure consciousness and was asked to try to achieve this experience by relaxing as much as possible. Both the PC group and the non-pc group were found to have a significantly lower respiration rate than the control group even before meditation (p<.05), indicating a trait effect of TM. Although all three groups displayed a significant decrease in respiration rate during the TM or rest period (p <.001 for both experimental groups and p <.025 for the control group), factorial analysis of co-variance revealed that the decrease in the PC group was significantly greater than the reduction found for both the non-pc group and the control group (p <.001). During TM the PC group was found to have a significantly lower respiration rate than both the non-pc group and the control group (p <.05), while the non-pc group was also significantly lower than the control group (p <.05). After TM or rest both the PC group and the non-pc group showed a 1556

2 SEVEREIDE METABOLIC, BIOCHEMICAL, AND CARDIOVASCULAR CHANGES: PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS -PAPER 197 significantly lower breath rate than the control group (p <.05). Subjective reports of the experience of pure consciousness were found to be completely correlated with periods of markedly reduced breath rate without compensatory breathing afterwards. No such periods were found in the control group. Each of the three groups also showed a significant decrease in heart rate during the TM or rest period (p <.OOJ for both experimental groups and p <.05 for the control group), but both the experimental groups decreased significantly more than the control group (p <.05 and p <.OJ for PC and non-pc group respectively). During periods of pure consciousness the heart rate was significantly lower than during the periods immediately before and after this experience (p <.OJ). The number of spontaneous skin resistance responses above 500 ohms before TM was found to be significantly lower for both experimental groups than for the control group (p <.05). The non-pc group showed a significant decrease in skin resistance responses during TM (p <.OOJ ), which proved to be significantly greater than the decrease for the control group (p <.005). During TM both the PC group and the non-pc group displayed a significantly lower number of skin resistance responses than the control group (p <.05 ). No spontaneous skin resistance responses were found during periods of pure consciousness. Immediately after the experiment the subjects were asked to describe in writing their mental activity during meditation or relaxation. Five subjects who experienced pure consciousness most often were retested several times. During the retests these subjects were interrupted in their meditation immediately after having signalled an experience of pure consciousness and asked to describe the mental activity just before the interruption. The 86 subjects comprising the phenomenological group were asked to fill out a two-part questionnaire. The first part contained questions in which the subjects could freely describe their experience of pure consciousness. In the second part they were asked to describe some special aspects of this experience. The subjects filled out the questionnaire at most one to two hours after their last experience of pure consciousness. The experiences reported by both the psychophysiological and the phenomenological groups were analysed systematically and categorized with reference to the different aspects involved in the experiences. A strong correlation was found between the two groups with regard to the manner in which the experience was described. All subjects, even though expressing themselves in different ways, seemed to share the same experience, both with regard to the experience of pure consciousness itself and the mental activity preceding it. Eight criteria, applied to evaluate the authenticity of the experiences reported, showed these experiences to be genuine, of a very particular nature -transcendental, unbounded, and universal-and completely distinct from the usually experienced waking, dreaming, and sleeping states of consciousness. Furthermore, the descriptions received were compared to descriptions of pure consciousness recorded thousands of years ago in the Upanishads, and also to those recorded in the nineteenth century by such men as Symonds, and found to be strikingly similar. It was concluded that the practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique definitely gives rise to a fourth major state of consciousness, pure consciousness, an experience which appears in all cultures, religions, time epochs, and social conditions, even though its interpretation may vary. The benefits of this age-old, universal experience are now available for all to enjoy through the Transcendental Meditation technique. INTRODUCTION Since Maharishi Mahesh Yogi introduced Transcendental Meditation (TM) more than 20 years ago, about two million people have learnt the technique. In the U.S.A. alone, over one million people have taken the basic TM course (6), while in Norway 30,000 have learnt, 4,000 of them in Trondheim. TM is a simple mental technique which is practised sitting with eyes closed for minutes twice a day. It is taught in the form of a standardized course comprising six sessions of one and a half hours each. One of the reasons so many people have learnt TM may be that the technique can easily be included in one's daily routine; TM involves no physical exercises or breath control, nor does it in- 1557

3 volve any kind of belief or special rules of conduct. The practice consists of thinking a mantra, i.e. a sound without any special meaning, which has a soothing influence on mind and body. The purpose of the technique is to let the mind and body experience a very deep state of rest so that one becomes more energetic and can function better in one's daily life. Because the TM technique is standardized and taught in the same way in 140 countries by qualified teachers, the technique can easily be studied scientifically. In recent years there have been hundreds of physiological and psychological studies conducted on TM, and more than one hundred papers have been published in Scientific research on the Transcendental Meditation program: Collected papers, vol. 1 ( 18). The first comprehensive research studies on the physiological changes during TM were conducted by Wallace (25, 26, 27, 28). Wallace (28) found a sharp decrease in oxygen consumption during the period of meditation compared to the period just before meditation, in which the subjects were sitting and relaxing with eyes closed. Wallace also found a sharp increase in skin resistance and a decrease in the concentration of blood lactate during meditation. EEG measurements indicated wakefulness and showed a significant increase of alpha activity in frontal and central areas of the brain. On the basis of the physiological changes found during TM, Wallace (26) suggested that TM produces a fourth major state of consciousness, which is different from the three commonly experienced states of consciousness-sleeping, dreaming, and waking. Whereas Wallace's data represent the average of the whole period of meditation, Farrow (9) examined those periods in meditation during which the subjects felt that they had reached the 'deepest' level of meditation both phenomenologically and physiologically, and reported the experience of 'a state of least excitation of consciousness' or 'pure consciousness', i.e. a state in which consciousness, wakefulness, is present without there being any thought or any other content of consciousness. Those who practice the Transcendental Meditation technique report that the experience of transcendental consciousness is a concrete experience of pure abstraction, and thus it is unlike any other experience with which we are acquainted. Transcendental consciousness, also called pure consciousness or pure awareness, is apparently a state in which thoughts are not present, yet the mind remains alert. (9, p. 109.) It is possible that the experience Farrow refers to is not an experience that occurs only in connection with the TM technique. In fact, W. T. Stace (23) has compared descriptions from persons in different cultures and different ages, and suggests that there exists a uni versa! experience of 'pure consciousness', i.e. consciousness without any content, only consciousness in itself. The physiological correlates of the experience studied by Farrow were striking. The subjects were asked to signal when they experienced pure consciousness by pushing a button just after the experience. It was found that pure consciousness was signalled immediately after periods in which respiration was markedly reduced, almost nil, without there being any compensatory hyperventilation afterwards. These periods lasted on average 18 seconds, at most 35 seconds, and occurred approximately once every minute. During these periods the heart rate slowed dow I). about ten beats per minute, the basal skin resistance was very high, and EEG coherence in the alpha, beta, and theta bands was high. In line with Farrow's use, the experience described as consciousness without any content will from now on be called 'the experience of pure consciousness'. The purpose of this study is to carry out a physiological and phenomenological investigation of this experience. METHODS SUBJECTS: PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL STUDY-The 30 subjects forming the experimental group were selected from among those in the Trondheim district who had the longest experience in the TM technique, both regarding the number of years of practice and the number of months spent on TM advanced residence courses. We selected subjects who reported regular experience of pure consciousness, and who thought they could reach that state even during disturbing physiological measurements. All the subjects in the experimental group had been taught TM by qualified TM teachers trained by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, and 7 of them were TM teachers themselves. Even though all subjects in this group felt that they would experience pure consciousness during the 1558

4 SEVEREIDE METABOLIC, BIOCHEMICAL, AND CARDIOVASCULAR CHANGES: PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS -PAPER 197 test, only 14 signalled that they experienced pure consciousness for at least ten seconds during the test. Therefore the 30 subjects in the experimental group were divided into two groups-those who experienced pure consciousness (the PC group) and those who did not experience pure consciousness for at least ten seconds during the test (the non-pc group). The 15 subjects of the control group were taken from people who had signed up for a TM course at the People's University (Friundervisningen) in Trondheim. They had attended an introductory lecture on the TM technique, but the tests were conducted before they were taught the actual practice of TM. No one in the control group thought that they had ever experienced pure consciousness. The most important data for the three groups are given in table 1. All the subjects selected were men, in order that the physiological variables would be as homogeneous as possible. The mean age in the non-pc group was 35.8 years, whereas in the PC group and the control group it was 32.2 and 31.0 years respectively. The subjects in the PC and non-pc groups had practised TM for 20 minutes twice a day for almost eight years on the average. The main difference between the two experimental groups was months spent on residence courses, at which, under proper guidance, one meditates more than the usual regular twice-daily sessions at home. The PC group had on the average spent almost one year on such courses, whereas the corresponding length of time for the non-pc group was four months. Training in the TM-Sidhi programme (advanced TM practices that are not tested in this study) and the TM teacher training take place on residence courses, and compared to the non-pc group, more subjects in the PC group had learnt the TM-Sidhi programme and had been trained as teachers of TM. Because diet can possibly have some significance in physiological tests, it is worth noting that one person in the PC group was a vegetarian, while no one in the other group was. APPARATUS: PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL STUDY-Skin resistance and respiration rate were recorded on a Beckman R-511A Dynograph 4-channel recorder, and data were scored manually for every minute on the basis of the polygraph recordings. For measure ment of the skin resistance a Beckman Type 9892A Skin Resistance Coupler was used; for respiration rate a Beckman Type 9875B Gauge Coupler, and for heart rate a Beckman Type 9857B Cardiotachometer Coupler. Skin resistance was measured with two Beckman silver-silverchloride 16 mm electrodes (no ). The skin of the palm of the left hand was washed with acetone; the electrodes, filled with Beckman electrode paste, were attached with Beckman Adhesive Collars (no ) 5 em from each other on the palm (in a direct straight line from the little finger). Numbers of galvanic skin resistance ( GSR) responses over 500 ohms were scored. Responses due to movements or sudden noise were not scored. For measuring the respiration rate a silicon rubber string filled with mercury was used, because this method was seen to ~e the least disturbing during the pre-test period. Preliminary measurements showed that the best place to attach the string considering the movements of respiration during TM was approximately 1~ em beneath the nipples. For measurement of the heart rate two electrodes (Red Dot) were used, and these were attached between two ribs approximately 3 em beneath the right and left nipple. PROCEDURE: PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL STUDY-The experimental situation was arranged in such a way as to be as natural and comfortable as possible for the subjects. All measurements were taken in a special room at the TM center of MIKI (Maharishi Institutt for Kreativ Intelligens), Trondheim. The subjects in the TM and control groups had been there several times before and had become familiar with the apparatus used for the tests. All the subjects knew the experimenter. TABLE 1 BIODATA OF SUBJECTS IN PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL STUDY GROUP N AGE YEARS OF 1M MONTHS OF COURSES TM-SIDHIS 1M TEACHERS Only men Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD N Ofo N OJo PC Non-PC Control

5 The temperature in the room was kept constantly at 20 C, and the level of noise was controlled by a fan that was working during the whole experiment, and 'masked' irregular noise. The room was dark except for a little bulb in the corner next to the polygraph. The subjects sat on a comfortable sofa with their backs toward the experimenter. The experimenter sat behind the polygraph, 2.5 meters away from the subjects, and registered possible movements of the subjects. All measurements were taken between 4 P.M. and 7 P.M. The subjects had been told to wear a shirt and a sweater and not to eat for two hours before the experiment. The subjects arrived half an hour before the test and sat waiting comfortably in a chair. They were asked to wash their hands with soap before the test and, if needed, to go to the toilet. After the measuring devices were attached to the subjects they were given the following instructions: The control group: 'Now I shall read a description of an experience called pure consciousness: "During the experience of pure consciousness the awareness is without any content-there are neither thoughts nor sensory perceptions, but the awareness is still awake--completely different from deep sleep. It is an unbounded state, unbounded in time and space." ' (This was read twice.) 'Even if you have not yet learnt how to meditate, try to get this experience. Try to meditate and relax as much as possible, on the basis of what you think meditation is.' The experimental (TM) group: 'Now you are going to meditate as usual, but I want you to signal with this push button if you experience pure consciousness, i.e. a state in which you are conscious, but in which there are no thoughts, no sensory perceptions or anything else in the awareness.' To all: 'If you feel that you be gin to experience pure consciousness, push this button once like this (-) *, and immediately after the experience is over, push twice, like this ( --). If you have pushed once, but still don't feel that you experienced pure consciousness, push three times (---) to signal that there was no such experience.' * In general such procedures requiring subjects to perform a particular task during meditation are not recommended because they will inevitably disturb the natural process of transcending during Transcendental Meditation and cause some strain in the physiology. -EDITORS 'Now close the eyes, and just sit with eyes closed some minutes until I tell you to start to meditate.' After 5 minutes: 'Continue to sit with eyes closed some more minutes, and be careful not to start meditating before I tell you to.' After 10 minutes: 'Now start meditating and continue until I tell you to stop.' After 30 minutes: 'Now stop meditating, but keep your eyes closed.' After 40 minutes: 'Open the eyes.' The data were scored for every minute except for those minutes between the periods when the subjects were given instructions. Immediately after the subjects had opened the eyes and the measuring devices had been taken off, the subjects were asked to describe in writing the mental activity experienced during meditation. Five of the subjects who experienced pure consciousness most often were tested several times more. During these measurements, the respiration rate was recorded, and the subjective experiences immediately before and during pure consciousness were examined. Immediately after the subjects had signalled the experience of pure consciousness they were interrupted in their meditation and asked to describe the mental activity just before they were interrupted. The descriptions were recorded on a tape recorder. Altogether 108 descriptions were recorded, i.e. approximately 21 descriptions per person. SUBJECfS: PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY -Subjects participating in the phenomenological study included the five subjects from the psychophysiological study who were tested several times (see last paragraph of 'procedure-psychophysiological study') and a group of 86 subjects from an advanced international TM course in Switzerland who had filled out a questionnaire at most two hours after they had experienced pure consciousness. The most important data for this group are given in tables 2 to 6. The number of men and women was equal, and most of the subjects were less than 40 years old. The level of education was high since almost everyone had spent two years or more at university. Almost 80 per cent were from the U.S.A. or Canada, and most people were either Protestants, Jews, or Catholics. Approximately 70 per cent had been practising the 1560

6 SEVEREIDE METABOLIC, BIOCHEMICAL, AND CARDIOVASCULAR CHANGES: PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS -PAPER 197 TABLE 2 DISTRIBUTION OF AGES OF THE SUBJECTS IN THE QUESTIONNAIRE STUDY TABLE 6 DISTRIBUTION OF THE NATIONALITIES OF THE SUBJECTS IN THE QUESTIONNAIRE STUDY AGE N OJo NATIONALITY N OJo Total United States Canada France Great Britain Australia West Germany Israel Norway India Total SEX Men Women Total TABLE 3 DISTRffiUTION OF SEXES OF THE SUBJECTS IN THE QUESTIONNAIRE STUDY N TABLE 4 DISTRIBUTION OF LEVELS OF EDUCATION OF THE SUBJECTS IN THE QUESTIONNAIRE STUDY % EDUCATION N % High School Univ. 2 years B.A M.A Ph.D Not answered 3.5 Total TABLE 5 DISTRIBUTION OF RELIGIONS OF THE SUBJECTS IN THE QUESTIONNAIRE STUDY RELIGION N % Protestant Catholic Jewish Methodist 1.2 Quaker I 1.2 None Not answered Total TM technique for four to seven years (table 7) and 22.2 per cent for more than eight years per cent said that they experienced pure consciousness in each meditation (table 8), while 10.5 per cent experienced this state at most a few times a week. During the last seven days 33.1 per cent had experienced pure consciousness 20 to 100 times (table 9), and 22.2 per cent more than 100 times per cent of the subjects were not sure how long the experience had lasted (table 1 0), while 19.7 per cent indicated it lasted less than 10 seconds, and 29.1 per cent said it varied from a few seconds to a few minutes. 9.3 per cent said it lasted more than two minutes. PROCEDURE: PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY-The questionnaire filled out by the international group consisted of two parts. The first part contained open questions in which the subjects could describe freely their experiences. The second part contained questions in which the subjects were asked to describe special aspects of the experience of pure consciousness-e.g. the experience of time and space. The questions of part two were answered only after part one had been completed. The subjects did not have to write their name on the questionnaire. In the introduction to the questionnaire pure consciousness was defined in the following way: 'The term "the experience of pure consciousness" is used in this questionnaire to refer to an experience of consciousness without any content, that is, an experience during which one is conscious, but in which there are no thoughts, mantra, sensations, or any other kind of mental content in the consciousness at all.' It was specified that the descriptions should be as 1561

7 TABLE 7 DISTRIBUTION OF MEDITATION AGE YEARS OF PRACTICE OF TM Not answered 1 Total 86 N OJo complete as possible: 'The questions ask for your experiences of pure consciousness, and even though the answers may seem obvious to you, it is important that you try to describe your experiences as completely as possible and have in mind that the answers will be read by people without any knowledge of the experience of pure consciousness or the Transcendental Meditation technique.' Only individuals who were sure that they had experienced pure consciousness during the last meditation period, i.e. at most one to two hours before the form was filled out, were included in the study. TABLE 8 DISTRmUTION OF FREQUENCY OF EXPERIENCE OF PURE CONSCIOUSNESS FREQUENCY OF EXPERIENCE OF PURE CONSCIOUSNESS N % Many times during each TM Each TM Every day Many times a week Every week Every month Less than once a month Total TABLE 9 NUMBER OF EXPERIENCES OF PURE CONSCIOUSNESS DURING THE LAST SEVEN DAYS NUMBER OF EXPERIENCES OF PC DURING last WEEK Do not know Total TABLE 10 DISTRIBUTiON OF DURATION OF EXPERIENCE OF PURE CONSCIOUSNESS DURATION OF PURE CONSCIOUSNESS N tjo N % Seconds or minutes Less than 10 seconds seconds Jz- 2 minutes minutes Do not know Not answered Total RESULTS-PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL STUDY The data for each of the three measures were analysed by a three (groups) by two (trials-second and third testing) factorial analysis of co-variance, where the first testing served as the co-variate. Covarying for the pre-test measure of each variable (before TM or rest) served to equate the three groups on the initial levels of heart rate, respiration rate, and spontaneous skin resistance responses. This procedure was necessary because on the initial measure, the three groups differed on number of skin resistance responses, F (2,42) = 5.83, p <.01, and on respiration rate, F (2,42) = 5.01, p <.025, but not on heart rate, F (2,42) = 1.14, not significant. Newman-Keuls' comparisons (p<.05) revealed that on the initial measurement of the number of skin resistance responses the PC and non-pc groups both differed significantly from the control group but not from each other; also the initial measurement of respiration rate showed that the PC and non-pc groups both differed significantly from the control group but not from each other. The analysis of co-variance controlled for the effects of these initial differences upon subsequent levels of the variables. RESPIRATION RATE-The results of the factorial analysis of co-variance for respiration rate are listed in table 11. The main effects of groups and trials were highly significant, as was the interaction of groups and trials. Exploring the meaning of the interaction by tests of simple interaction for each pair of groups (employing the overall MS error term) revealed that the interaction of the PC and non-pc groups was significant,f (1,41) =23.15,p <.001, as 1562

8 SEVEREIDE METABOLIC, BIOCHEMICAL, AND CARDIOVASCULAR CHANGES: PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS -PAPER 197 was the simple interaction between the PC group and the control group, F (1,41) = , p <.001; however, the simple interaction of the non-pc group and the control group did not reach significance, F (1,41) =2.85, p <.10. Thus, the PC group experienced a decrease in respiration rate during TM which was greater than that found for the non-pc group during TM or for the control group during rest. The reduction in respiration rate for the PC group was 43.1 per cent and for the non-pc group 18.8 per cent (see unadjusted means in table 12 and in figure 1). When the three groups were considered separately, each group was found to display a significant decrease in respiration rate during the TM or rest period, with a subsequent increase in the following period. The simple main effect for trials was significant for the PC group,f (1,41) = 94.46,p<.001, for the non-pc group, F (1,41) = 23.45, p <.001, and for the control group, F (1,41) = 5.47, p <.025. In order to understand the meaning of the main effect for groups in the context of the groups by trials interaction, one-way ANCOVAs were run between the three groups at both of the two time periods (during and after meditation or rest). The ANCOV A for the 'during' period was significant, F (2,41) = 25.39, p <.001; Newman-Keuls' post hoc tests (p <. 05) indicated that the respiration rate for the PC group was significantly lower than both the non-pc group and the control group, while the non-pc group was also significantly lower than the control group. The one-way ANCOVA for the period after meditation or rest was also significant, F (2,41) =4.58, p <.025. Newman-Keuls' tests showed that both the PC and the non-pc groups had significantly lower breath rate after meditation than the control group after rest, yet the PC and non-pc groups did not differ significantly from one another. Thus, the significant main effect of groups, in the context of the significant group by trials interaction, indicated that the reduced respiration during the meditation period for the PC and non-pc groups resulted in a continued lower respiration rate during the following period, resulting in lower adjusted mean scores over both trials., In both experimental groups the greatest reduction was in the first five minutes of meditation, but the respiration rate continued to go down during the whole meditation period. After TM there was a rapid increase in respiration rate but the level after TM stayed lower than before TM, about one breath less per minute, both for the PC and non-pc groups. TABLE 11 FACTORIAL ANALYSIS OF CO-VARIANCE FOR RESPIRATION RATE' SOURCE ss df MS F p Total Between subjects Conditions <.001 Error b Within subjects Trials <.001 Trials X conditions <.001 Error w Before TM Mean During TM Mean After TM Mean TABLE 12 RESPIRATION RATE (BREATHS PER MINUTE) TIME PC GROUP NON-PC GROUP CONTROL GROUP (min) (N=l4) (N=16) (N=15) ~ I...-;--. I ~ I I I I I I I I (min) BEFORE DURING TM OR REST AFTER FIG. 1. CHANGE IN RESPIRATION RATE FOR THREE GROUPS. 1563

9 Respiration rate during the experience of pure consciousness. The periods of pure consciousness correlated completely with periods of markedly reduced breath. The subjects signalled that they started to experience pure consciousness just when the breath was strongly reduced and signalled that the experience was over immediately after the respiration movements had started again. Figure 2 shows the respiration curve for a subject who experienced pure consciousness during meditation, whereas figure 3 shows the curve for the subject who had the highest number of experiences of pure consciousness. All the pure consciousness experiences occurred during the TM period, and none of the persons signalled that they experienced pure consciousness when the special respiration pattern did not occur. None of the persons in the control group signalled that they experienced pure consciousness and none of them had periods during which the breath was markedly reduced for more than 10 seconds. On the average, the subjects in the PC group experienced pure consciousness 8. 9 times during 20 minutes of TM. The lowest number was 1, while the highest number was 29. The experience lasted on the average 16.2 seconds (table 13). Figure 4 shows the distribution of periods of pure consciousness against duration. It is important to note that TM does not involve any conscious effort to change the respiration pattern. Most of the subjects in the study-9 out of 14 in the PC group-were not even aware that the breath was so strongly reduced during the periods of pure consciousness. To test whether the place where the respiration string was attached influenced the special respiration pattern observed during pure consciousness, the string was attached on different places; the same pattern could be observed whether the string was moved 10 or 20 em upwards or 5 em downwards. Therefore it is very likely that the special respiration pattern observed during the periods of pure consciousness was caused by a very low metabolic rate occurring while pure consciousness was experienced. The respiration curve in figure 5 suggests that there is no marked compensation in the breathing after periods of pure consciousness. There were several instances of a subject breathing only once or twice after pure consciousness and then directly passing into a new experience of pure consciousness. Even after a period of pure consciousness that lasted 44 seconds there did not seem to be any sign of compensation afterwards. In order to make a comparison TABLE 13 THE NUMBER OF PERIODS OF PURE CONSCIOUSNESS WITH THE AvERAGE DuRATION FOR EvERY SuBJECT IN THE PC GROUP SUBJECT No. (N=l4) NUMBER OF PERIODS OF PURE CONSCIOUSNESS Total number of periods of pure consciousness Mean number of periods of pure consciousness Mean duration S.D. AVERAGE DURATION (IN SECONDS) sec I = Start of Pure Consciousness II = End of Pure Consciousness + Expiration phase t Inspiration phase FIG. 2. RESPIRATION CURVE FOR SUBJECf WHO EXPERIENCED PURE CONSCIOUSNESS' DURING MEDITATION. 1564

10 SEVEREIDE METABOLIC, BIOCHEMICAL, AND CARDIOVASCULAR CHANGES: PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS -PAPER min Eyes closed TM I = Start of Pure Consciousness 0 = End of Pure Consciousness + Expiration phase t Inspiration phase II II II II II I II II II II II II II II II ill II II II 1 Eyes closed FIG. 3. RESPIRATION CURVE FOR SUBJECf WITH HIGHEST NUMBER OF EXPERIENCES OF PURE CONSCIOUSNESS 1S6S

11 with the respiration curve during and after periods of consciously holding the breath, some of the subjects were asked to hold the breath in the last part of the meditation. Figure 5 shows the periods of pure consciousness and periods of consciously holding the breath for the same person during the same sitting. The respiration patterns during periods of holding the breath and periods of pure consciousness show that compensatory activity was much more dominant after periods of consciously holding the breath than after periods of pure consciousness. Another way to test whether there is any compensatory hyperventilation after periods of pure consciousness is to subtract the sum of all periods of pure consciousness for each subject from the total medita- 36 [/)[I) 32 {J.ll:l) U(J.l zz 28 (J.lVl ;!~ (J.lQ 24 o..u ~[I) (J.lZ u...o 20 ou 16 C::(J.l (J.lC:: a:l~ 12 ~0.. ~u... zo DURATION IN SECONDS FIG. 4. DISTRIBUTION OF PERIODS OF PURE CONSCIOUSNESS AGAINST DURATION. tion period of 20 minutes, and then divide the total number of breaths during the meditation period with the outcome of the subtraction, i.e. the number of minutes without pure consciousness. The result shows the average respiration rate for the periods between the experiences of pure consciousness. In table 14 this has been done for those subjects who had more than ten experiences of pure consciousness. Table 14 also shows that during periods between experiences of pure consciousness the respiration rate is much lower than in periods with eyes closed before TM. For example, subject number 16 breathed 13.5 times a minute before TM, 5.8 times a minute during TM, and 7.4 times a minute during periods between pure consciousness experiences-a reduction of 45.2 per cent compared to the period before TM. This person spent almost a fourth of his meditation period in pure consciousness. HEART RATE-The results of the factorial analysis of co-variance for heart rate are found in table 15. As can be seen from this table, there was a significant TABLE 14 RESPIRATION RATES FOR. SUBJECfS WITH MORE THAN TEN EXPERIENCES OF PURE CONSCIOUSNESS DURING MEDITATION SUBJECT EYES TM BETWEEN %0FTM TOTAL TIME No. CLOSED PC IN PC IN PC (min) sec TABLE 15 A: Normal TM ~~VVfl1~rV~I ~r/~1fllr B: The subject holding his breath for seconds. FIG. 5. RESPIRATION CURVE OF A SUBJECT DURING NORMAL TM (A) AND WHILE CONSCIOUSLY HOLDING HIS BREATH (8). FACTORIAL ANALYSIS OF CO-VARIANCE FOR HEART RATE SOURCE ss df MS F p Total Between subjects Conditions <.2 Error b Within subjects Trials <.001 Trials X conditions <.025 Error w

12 SEVEREIDE METABOLIC, BIOCHEMICAL, AND CARDIOVASCULAR CHANGES: PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS -PAPER 197 main effect for trials combining all three groups and, more importantly, a significant interaction between groups and trials. Probing this interaction by tests of simple interactions for each pair of groups (employing the overall MS error term) indicates that the simple interaction was not significant for the comparison between the PC and non-pc groups, F (1,41) =0.26, but the comparisons between both the PC group and the control group and between the n~n PC group and the control group were significant, F (1,41) =5.08, p <.05, and F (1,41) =8.14, p <.01, respectively. As indicafed by the unadjusted means listed in table 16 and charted in figure 6, these significant interactions express the fact that both groups of TM participants decreased significantly in heart rate during meditation in contrast to the comparable period of rest for the control group. Considered separately, each of the three groups also showed a significant decrease in heart rate during the TM or rest period, with a subsequent return to the previous level; that is, for the PC group the simple main effect for trials was significant,f (1,41) = 27.95,p <.001, as well as for the non-pc group, F (1,41)=41.03, p<.001, and for the control group, F (1,41) =4.98, p <.05. Heart rate during the experience of pure consciousness. The heart rate during pure consciousness was measured by comparing 1 period in each of the experiences that lasted more than 20 seconds with the periods of 20 seconds before and after pure consciousness. Altogether there were 34 periods of more than 20 seconds but some of the periods were so close to each other that there were less than 20 seconds between them. For that reason 7 periods were excluded. One-way analysis of variance on heart rate before, during, and after pure consciousness revealed that a significant change took place, F (2,52) = 49.44, p <.001. Newman-Keuls' comparison showed that the reduction of heart rate during pure consciousness compared to the periods before and after was significant (p <. 01), but there was no significant difference between the periods before and after pure consciousness. The reduction in heart rate during pure consciousness compared to the periods immediately before and after the experience was greater than the reduction during TM compared to the periods before and after TM (fig. 7a and 7b). The reduction during pure consciousness was on the average 5.1 beats per minute, while during TM the decrease was an average of 2.2 beats per minute. TABLE 16 HEART RATE (HEART BEATS PER MINUTE) TIME PC GROUP NON-PC GROUP CONTROL GROUP (min) (N=i4) (N=l6) (N=l5) Before TM _ Mean During TM Mean After TM Mean TABLE 17 HEART RATE DURING AND IMMEDIATELY BEFORE AND AfTER PURE CONSCIOUSNESS BEFORE DURING AFTER Mean of Heart Beats I 20 seconds~ Mean of Heart Beats I minute I I I I I I I I (min) BEFORE DURING TM AFfER OR REST FIG. 6. CHANyE IN HEART RATE FOR THREE GROUPS. 1567

13 SKIN RESISTANCE-For spontaneous GSR responses, the ANCOVA is listed in table 18. As for respiration rate, the main effects of groups and trials were significant, as was the groups by trials interaction. Tests of simple interaction indicated a significant interaction between the non-pc group and the control group, F (1,41) = 9. 72,p <.005, but not between the other pairs of groups. Table 19 and figure 8 show that TABLE 18 FACTORIAL ANALYSIS OF CO-VARIANCE FOR SPONTANEOUS SKIN RESISTANCE RESPONSES ABOVE 500 OHMS SOURCE ss df MS F p '2 s til ~ 0 e ll.:l f-4 < ~ f-4 ~ < ll.:l ::c Total Between subjects Conditions <.05 Error b Within subjects Trials <.005 Trials X conditions <.025 Error w TABLE 19 BEFORE TM AFTER FIG. 7a. HEART RATE BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER TM FOR PURE CONSCIOUSNESS GROUP. Before TM During TM After TM NuMBER OF SKIN RESISTANCE REsPONSES ABOVE 500 OHMS PER 10 MINUTES PC GROUP (N=l4) NON-PC GROUP (N=l6) CONTROL GROUP (N=l5) I I I I I I I I I I I I I I CONTROL GROUP NON-PC GROUP ~ ~ _-Ape ~ ~GROUP I I I BEFORE PC DURING PC AFTER PC FIG. 7b. HEART RATE OF THE PURE CONSCIOUSNESS GROUP IMMEDIATELY BEFORE, DURING, AND IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE EXPERIENCE OF PURE CONSCIOUSNESS (20-SECOND PERIODS). BEFORE TM OR REST AFTER FIG. 8. NUMBER OF SKIN RESISTANCE RESPONSES ABOVE 500 OHMS PER 10 MINUTES BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER TM OR REST FOR THREE GROUPS. 1568

14 SEVEREIDE METABOLIC, BIOCHEMICAL, AND CARDIOVASCULAR CHANGES: PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS -PAPER 197 the non-pc group decreased in the number of spontaneous GSR fluctuations during the TM period relative to the control group during the rest period (unadjusted means are listed and graphed). Similarly, when each of the three groups were considered separately, through simple main effects for trials, the non-pc group showed a significant decrease during the TM period, F (1,41) = 17.41, p <.001, while the decrease seen in the PC group, whose pre-test incidence of spontaneous GSR responses was already very low, did not quite reach significance, F (1,41) = 3. 08, p <. 10, and the control group did not approach significance, F (1,41) = 0.09, not significant.) The meaning of the main effect for groups in the context of the interaction of groups and trials was explored by one-way ANCOVAs between the three groups at the 'during' and 'after' periods. The AN COVA of the period during TM or rest was significant, F(2,41) =7.90,p <.005, but not the ANCOVA for the period afterwards, F(2, 41) = 0.51, not significant. Newman-Keuls' post hoc comparisons indicated that in the period during TM or rest, the mean number of spontaneous GSR responses was significantly lower for both the PC and the non-pc groups than the control group, while the PC group and non-pc group did not differ from one another. Thus, the overall main effect between groups in adjusted scores was due to the effect on the overall average of decreased GSR fluctuations during the meditation period. Skin resistance responses during the experience of pure consciousness. There was no skin resistance response above 500 ohms during periods of pure consciousness. It is very difficult to draw any conclusion from this, however, since the total number of skin resistance responses during TM was extremely low (on the average 3.0 per 10 minutes). RESULTS-PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY The group of persons who described the experience of pure consciousness by means of a questionnaire will be called 'the questionnaire group', and the group that described the experience during the physiological measurements immediately after the signalling and respiration curve indicated the experience of pure consciousness, will be called 'the psychophysiological group'. The results of the phenomenological study will be presented in two parts. In the first part, two typical and extensive descriptions of the experience of pure consciousness will be given along with the respiration curve that accompanied the experience, both descriptions being taken from the psychophysiological group. In the second part the expressions utilized to describe the experience of pure consciousness in both groups will be systematically examined and put in different categories. A distinction will also be made between the experience of pure consciousness itself and the mental activity just before. The subjects of both groups had been asked to describe these two aspects of their experience. TYPICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF THE EXPERIENCE OF PURE CONSCIOUSNESS (PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL GROUP)-The respiration curve in figure 9 shows inhalation and exhalation in one subject after about 30 sec I = Start of Pure Consciousness II = End of Pure Consciousness + Expiration phase t Inspiration phase A AG. 9. RESPIRATION CURVE OF ONE SUBJECT FROM THE PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL GROUP AFTER FOUR MINUTES OF TM. 1569

15 four minutes of TM. At point A the person was asked to describe the mental activity in the last minute before he was interrupted: The thought activity was very distant, but not exactly vague-it just faded away more and more. The same applies to noise and the feeling of what was going on outside me. As the conscious content gradually settled down, there was an increasing feeling of wholeness and unboundedness. A kind of underlying consciousness independent of the content of the conscious mind gradually appeared. Perhaps I can compare it to cleaning a blackboard-the letters and the drawings disappear and the blackboard itself appears. After the content of consciousness had faded away, suddenly the experience of pure consciousness came. Suddenly I felt that consciousness expanded, boundaries in time and space disappeared, and fullness, wholeness appeared, consciousness was completely without any content. I was completely awake, the awareness was there, very clear, but it was empty of any content, just pure consciousness in itself. When the experience was over I once again became aware of the sounds in the room, and the thoughts began wandering, and then I was asked to open my eyes. This experience was relatively detailed. The next description, including several periods of pure consciousness, for which the corresponding respiration curve is shown in figure 10, is also detailed: After having meditated some minutes I felt that the thoughts eind mental activity settled down. The sounds stayed more in the background and I started to lose sensation of the hands and the rest of the body. It was a comfortable feeling of peace and rest, and, even though what happened in the mind became more and more distant, it felt as if consciousness became clearer and clearer. It felt as if consciousness expanded and suddenly I passed into a state of complete rest, full consciousness without content and unbounded in time and space. After some moments, I am not sure how long, suddenly I came out, but I still felt that I was on a subtle level; I sat thinking about something, without the thoughts disturbing the mental rest. Then I felt that the 1 min I = Start of Pure Consciousness II = End of Pure Consciousness + Expiration phase t Inspiration phase AG. 10. RESPIRATION CURVE DURING SEVERAL PERIODS OF PURE CONSCIOUSNESS. thoughts again faded away and that consciousness expanded. This state is difficult to describe, but it is very distinct and clear and very comfortable. It is the transition to pure consciousness that is most comfortable-during pure consciousness there is just consciousness present, no feelings of comfort or the like, just fullness. Just after I came out of this second experience of pure consciousness, I hardly had time to push the button twice before I again passed into a new experience of unbounded consciousness. The consciousness was full, without boundaries, and as I came out again it felt as if the thoughts overshadowed consciousness. In a way consciousness was beneath the thoughts, sounds and the other contents of consciousness -there was a clear separation between consciousness itself and the content of consciousness. In both these descriptions the subjects experienced that the mental activity decreased until there was no content in the consciousness -only an experience of consciousness in itself without boundaries in time and space. SYSTEMATIC EXAMINATION OF THE DATA-To systematize the study of the descriptions given by the subjects of bod~ groups, all the expressions in the descriptions were put into categories according to what aspects of the experience they referred to. If the description contained several expressions belonging to the same category, this category was counted only once. Table 20 gives the categories that were used in the descriptions. CATEGORIES Awareness/wakefulness Content of awareness Sensory perceptions Time Space Wholeness Feelings Self-awareness Physiological functions Difficult to describe TABLE 20 CATEGORIES OF EXPRESSIONS EXPRESSIONS Referring to the subject's awareness, wakefulness. Referring to the content of awareness, e.g. thoughts or feelings. Directly referring to experiences in which the senses are involved. Describing the experience of time. Referring to the experience of space. Such descriptions as wholeness, fullness, unboundedness were included in this category provided that it was not specified that the wholeness referred to time or space.. Describing the emotional aspects of the experience. Referring to the experience of the Self. Describing physiological functions. Referring to the fact that the experience was difficult to describe. 1570

16 SEVEREIDE METABOLIC, BIOCHEMICAL, AND CARDIOVASCULAR CHANGES: PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS -PAPER 197 Two examples of how the expressions in a description were distributed will now be given. The first example is a description of the experience of pure consciousness: During my experience of pure consciousness the mind is completely still and quiet. The mind is completely unlocalized (there are no thoughts or mantra) -just an expanded feeling of unboundedness. I am awake inside but not to any particular object of attention-such as a thought, or sound, or smell. My mind seems to be filled with light and my breathing is almost nil. A most pleasant and satisfying feeling. The different aspects emphasized in this description are: Time/ Space-'The mind is completely unlocalized'; 'feeling of unboundedness'. Awareness/Wakefulness-'awake inside'. Content of awareness-'no thoughts or mantra'; 'mind is completely still and quiet'. Sensory perceptions- 'no sound or smell', but still the mind seems to be 'filled with light'. Physiological functions-'breathing is almost nil'. Feelings-'a most pleasant and satisfying feeling'. The second example is a description of the mental activity before the experience of pure consciousness: Gradual refinement of mental activity, becomes 'quieter' and less aware of environmental stimuli, feeling of more abstractness, yet not drowsy or sleepy but rather extremely alert. Experience of bright light, a feeling of exhilaration. A great expansion of awareness. The expressions in this description can be put into the following categories: Content of awareness-'gradual refinement of mental activity', 'a feeling of more abstractness', 'becomes quieter'. Sensory perceptions-'less aware of environmental stimuli', 'experience of bright light'. Awareness/ Wakefulness-'yet not drowsy or sleepy but rather extremely alert'. Space-' great expansion of awareness'. Feelings-'a feeling of exhilaration'. Categorizing all expressions of both the questionnaire and the psychophysiological groups, resulted in the classification given in table 21. Both with regard to pure consciousness and activity before pure consciousness the descriptions of the psychophysiological group contained more expressions per description than those of the other group. This is natural because these subjects described the experience just after it happened, and it may be easier to describe one's experiences orally to a tape recorder than to write them down. The table shows that the categories 'awareness/wakefulness', 'content of awareness' were most used. The categories 'difficult to describe', 'self-awareness' were least used. There is a strong correlation between the TABLE 21 DISTRIBUTION OF EXPRESSIONS ACCORDING TO CATEGORIES EXPERIENCE OF PURE CONSCIOUSNESS MENTAL ACTIVITY BEFORE PURE CONSCIOUSNESS Psychophysiological group Questionnaire group Psychophysiological group Questionnaire group Number % Number % Number % Number % Awareness/wakefulness Content of awareness Sensory perception Time Space Wholeness Feelings Self-awareness Physiological functions Difficult to describe Total Number of expressions per description The psychophysiological group consisted of 108 descriptions, the questionnaire group consisted of 86 descriptions. 1571

17 psychophysiological group and the questionnaire group with regard to how often the different categories were used. The greatest difference in the use of expressions to describe pure consciousness compared to the activity previous to pure consciousness is that more subjects used expressions from the categories 'time', 'space', and 'wholeness' to describe pure consciousness. In part two of the questionnnaire there were questions about the feelings of time and space and selfawareness. The questions were: 'Please describe your feeling of time during the experience of pure consciousness.' 'Please describe your feeling of space during the experience of pure consciousness.' 'Please describe how you experience your "self" or "I" during the experience of pure consciousness.' The distribution of answers can be seen in table 22. All those who answered the questions replied that time, space, and the self were experienced as infinite, without boundaries. Thus, even though only 14 subjects referred to the self in the free description, all said that the self was infinite when asked in particular how the self was experienced during pure consciousness. In part two there were also questions about sensory perceptions, and all but two answered that there was no sensory activity at all during pure consciousness (table 23). The most typical expressions pertaining to the different categories will now be presented. The answers of the psychophysiological group have been TABLE 22 DISTRIBUTION OF ANSWERS REGARDING FEELINGS OF TIME AND SPACE, AND SELF-AWARENESS Infinite, unbounded Not answered TIME 85 TABLE 23 SPACE 85 1 SELF DESCRIPTION OF ANSWERS REGARDING SENSORY PERCEPTIONS No sensory activity Not answered Total NUMBER translated from Norwegian into English. AWARENESS/WAKEFULNESS AND THE CONTENT OF AWARENESS-A. During pure consciousness. In the free description 61 subjects used expressions that indicated that they were conscious and awake during pure consciousness, and 71 subjects mentioned that there was no content whatsoever and no activity during the experience. These two categories were often mentioned together, most of those who mentioned one of them also mentioned the other. Typical excerpts from the descriptions are: 'I had a feeling of being awake inside, without there being any content in the awareness, just a state of awareness. ' '... pure consciousness by itself. My mind in this state becomes fully alert and completely relaxed. There are no thoughts.' '... being aware of nothing, and yet this awareness is very alive... ' 'There is "nothing" there, yet I am aware.' Besides pointing out that they were conscious during the experience, some subjects emphasized that the state was unlike sleep: '... even if there were no thoughts or any other content in the awareness, I was awake, it was far from any sleep-like state.' 'A state of no thoughts, no sound. Awareness of being awake and yet "as if" asleep, but this is nothing like sleep. A ware ness of one's own awareness describes the experience.' Words like 'silence' and 'stillness' were often used, obviously meaning non-activity, rest: '... it was an experience of complete silence and peace.' '... absolute stillness that is alive and full, though without movement.' 'The mind is completely still and quiet... ' '... deep silent stillness... ' Other expressions refer directly to the cessation of all mental activity: '... the mind is alert but non-active yet ready to act.' 'A total absence of all mind fluctuations yet at the same time lively alertness.' B. Before pure consciousness. Absolutely all the subjects who answered the question about the activ- 1572

18 SEVEREIDE METABOLIC, BIOCHEMICAL, AND CARDIOVASCULAR CHANGES: PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS -PAPER 197 ity in the mind before pure consciousness used expressions that indicated that the mental activity gradually became less and less: 'There was a gradual reduction of the mental activity; thoughts got increasingly calmer and vaguer.' 'In the beginning of meditation there were many thoughts and much happening in the mind. Gradually the thoughts disappeared, and finally the last vague thoughts disappeared as pure consciousness started.' 'The fluctuations of my mind progressively settled down to a state of no fluctuation.' What is meant by 'less and less mental activity' is made quite clear in these examples: 'Usually lots of thoughts at the beginning of meditation-then thoughts become less with longer gaps in between; thoughts become finer, less gross... ' '... my awareness becomes increasingly broader and less caught up in the details of individual thoughts.' 'Settling down, refining to a point when thoughts are experienced as pure meaning, no words-then quietness.' As the mental activity becomes less, consciousness is experienced as clearer and clearer: '... but even if the mental activity becomes more vague and abstract, consciousness continues to be awake and clear.' 'Very fine thinking, thoughts are delicate and very subtle and they seem to just keep fading and pure awareness just sort of overwhelms them and swallows them up and they drift away.' SENSORY PERCEPTIONS-A. During pure consciousness. All expressions in this category refer to the fact that there was no sensory activity during the experience: '... no feeling of the body, sounds are not noticed.' 'No objects of perception... ' 'No awareness of body or surroundings.' Sixteen subjects mentioned in the free description that they experienced some kind of light during the experience: 'Filled with light. '... light or glow... ' '... brightness of awareness... ' Most of those who mentioned this light, however, felt that it was different from the usual experience of light-it was in some way 'beyond' light: '... a sort of pure light, as if beyond light... ' 'It is a very "bright" experience although it does not involve imagination of light.' 'It is not dark-or light as we know it.' B. Before pure consciousness. Description of sensory activity (sounds, feeling of body) gradually becoming more distant and vague: 'I lost the feeling of my hands, feet, and the rest of the body as I settled down.' 'Sounds become gradually more distant until there is no sound and no thoughts.' 'Lightness in the head, body becomes very still and comfortable, feeling of slipping easily, drifting off to awareness.' The expressions that in particular mention the experience of light confirm the impression that light in itself is not exp~rienced during pure consciousness, but before pure consciousness the light may become stronger and stronger until the transition to pure consciousness: 'Then there is the experience of very refined states of the mantra accompanied by light and feelings of extreme bliss. At this point the bottom drops out and pure consciousness occurs.' 'The light became more intensified till nothing was left but just being there.' 'As the mind settles down to a remarkable still state I experience brilliant light.' TIME-A. During pure consciousness. The answers indicated that time was experienced as infinite, unbounded: 'Time did not seem to exist, a feeling of timelessness. It neither moves fast nor slow, a kind of pause of time.' 'No experience of time.' 'No notion of it.' The expressions in the last two examples may be interpreted to mean that the subjects did not notice the time aspect of the experience, but a more reasonable interpretation of expressions like 'no experience of time' is that time, as we usually experience it, does not exist, and that time is experienced as timelessness. Most expressions clearly show that the 1573 ~(

19 subjects are aware of the time- aspect of the experience: '... time does not exist, just unboundedness in the awareness.' 'No feeling of time, absolutely suspended.' 'The experience of time is timeless, infinite, unbounded.' 'No sense of time, just the present, non-changing "now".~ B. Before pure consciousness. The expressions indicate that time is experienced as more and more timeless: 'Time disappears more and more, a feeling of timelessness comes.' 'There was a feeling that time neither moved fast nor slow. Time more and more lost its meaning.' 'Time seems to expand or gain an eternal quality to it.' SPACE-A. During pure consciousness. The expressions indicate that the feeling of space is infinite, unbounded: 'No feeling of the space aspect; I felt completely beyond all boundaries, no thoughts went up or down, left or right.' 'Space is unbounded, as if boundaries are not there or transparent. ' 'You are the space. It is unbounded. It has no characteristics. It is unmoving, unchanging. It is. It is soft. It is impermeable.' B. Before pure consciousness. It seems as if boundaries in space progressively disappear: 'As I moved towards pure consciousness, there was an expansion. It was just as if my consciousness opened up and all boundaries disappeared.' 'Usually there will be some expansion going to incredibly huge, but in unbounded pure consciousness big and small have no meaning.' 'A feeling of expansion to unboundedness.' 'Boundaries fade away.' WHOLENESS-A. During pure consciousness. This category indicates that while there was no content or activity during the experience, there was a feeling of wholeness or fullness: 'Complete inner fullness.' 'A feeling of wholeness.' 'Serene wholeness.' Several answers contained both 'positive' and 'negative' expressions: 'Nothingness, emptiness, yet complete fullness.' 'A Void, abstract fullness of Being.' 'The experience of nothing and everything contained there.' B. Before pure consciousness. The expressions indicate the feeling of wholeness becoming increasingly dominant: 'All boundaries of the awareness faded away, and a feeling of wholeness, openness, or infinity appeared.' 'In the background there is an experience of wholeness becoming increasingly more dominating.' 'I become aware of a coherence and a feeling of lively wholeness that is subtler and separate from other mental activity.' FEELINGS-A. During pure consciousness. The expressions in this category indicate that the experience is characterized by complete peace and calm: 'Deep silence and a feeling of wholeness (very fulfilling).' 'Enormously great calm, peace.' 'Unbounded awareness-the feeling is one of tremendous peace and silence-total fulfilment.' In other answers there is a clear explanation why this state can be characterized by expressions like 'fulfilment' etc.: 'There is no experience of desires or wants, only a balanced state of fulfilment that just is-being beyond change, time, and space.' 'A feeling of having gone beyond limitations, a feeling of having arrived at the destination... completeness, satisfying to a very complete degree.' It seems as if the non-experience of any boundaries in the form of time, space, wishes, or changes in the awareness is experienced as a completely harmonious and balanced state: 'There is a timelessness, a contentment, and a feeling of inner peace, of being really at home and of belonging, as if this is where I belong forever.' 'Blissful awareness, not aware of anything, just awareness itself; fulfilment, where any other experience, i.e. thoughts etc., would be less fulfilling; floating in eternity, timelessness, where 1574

20 SEVEREIDE METABOLIC, BIOCHEMICAL, AND CARDIOVASCULAR CHANGES: PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS -PAPER 197 change has no significance; very fulfilling, most fulfilling experience.' B. Before pure consciousness. The expressions of this category describe the experience of calm and peace increasing as pure consciousness comes nearer: 'Mental activity settles down, becomes quieter, smoother. As I get closer to pure consciousness, this becomes more so. A sense of harmony grows, everything is more charming. As I go in-a feeling of exhilarating expansion, a "letting go", a release from boundaries, a "phase transition" to a completely different state.' 'One's small self seems to lose its boundaries and expand to universality, giving a great feeling of warmth and exhilaration.' 'As the mind settles down to a remarkable still state, I experience a blissful feeling.' THE SELF-A. During pure consciousness. The self is described as identical to pure consciousness (Self). It is experienced in itself, without any object or any other content-infinite and unbounded: 'Pure consciousness is the experience of one's innermost Self -the Self is consciousness in its pure nature.' 'The Self is there, infinite, unbounded, it is, consciousness in itself.' 'The "I" alone is and nothing else. Pure subject with no object.' 'Unbounded, unmanifest, the Self is known by itself.' 'Pure Self, there is nothing at all there but me!' 'It is as if I am at once beyond and in the experience-as if I am both the experiencer and the sole object of experience.' 'The Self is unbounded, universal, unlimited, infinitely correlated with all others.' B. Before pure consciousness. The descriptions indicate that the self expands-boundaries disappear more and more: 'The experience of the ego is gradually erased, but still the identity does not disappear. On the contrary there is a much deeper identity, a wholeness, fullness in the feeling of "I" coming into light.' 'It is difficult to describe, but it felt like the feeling of the "I" was expanding. What was "non-1" faded away, whereas the "I" became stronger, more open.' 'The subject-object relationship is there as long as there is even the faintest mental activity-the object disappears and then pure consciousness (the subject) remains by itself.' e '... feel self expand and boundaries of self just melt.' 'Individual losing individuality and gaining universality.' 'A gradual strengthening of the presence of the deep, silent "Self" until it is all that remains.' PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS-A. During pure consciousness. This category contains expressions that do not describe the experience itself, but the physiological activity accompanying the experience. Indirectly it involves the sensory activity of the organs of the body, but what is primarily expressed is that the activity of the organs of the body, heart and lungs etc., reaches its minimum during the experience of pure consciousness: 'Body functions seem to be in suspension.' 'Immovability, as if all body processes, e.g. heart beat, breathing, a~e in a state of suspended animation.' 'The body is in a very deep state of rest-breath slows down and often stops during these times.' B. Before pure consciousness. Several subjects mentioned that the reduction of mental activity was accompanied by a reduction of physiological activity: 'The mind settles down, physical activity settles as well.' 'Gradually thoughts and physical activity subside.' 'Not only my mental activity, but my whole physiology settles down considerably (obviously because the two are very much interrelated, the settling down of one directly relates to the settling down of the other).' DIFFICULT TO DESCRIBE-A. During pure consciousness. Ten subjects in the questionnaire group and 17 descriptions in the psychophysi ological group mentioned that the experience was difficult to describe: 'Any explanation will sound strange because our vocabulary is derived from experience in the waking state and these words are not really adequate to describe this experience. The experience speaks for itself. ' 1575

21 'I can't describe it! That is trying to bind the boundless. It is literally indescribable. You have to experience it yourself.' 'All the questions on the experience of pure consciousness are at least somewhat difficult, because I find that pure consciousness is only comprehensible by pure consciousness, and now, when I'm out of the experience, I can't really comprehend it or remember it.' B. Before pure consciousness. Some subjects thought it was the transition to pure consciousness that was difficult to describe: 'Difficult to answer. There is no "just before ': Analogy: When a car approaches from the distance, you gradually become more and more aware of its noise. At some point you realize you've been hearing the car approaching for some time. In general, mental activity settles down to quiet feeling levels. ' 'This would be hard to describe as it happens quite spontaneously where all of a sudden I realize that I have transcended in the immediate past, but I can't say exactly for how long or when it started.' 'It is difficult to make such definite analysis of the process as it all happens so spontaneouslymental activity becomes less and less, then pure consciousness.' SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS FROM THE DESCRIPTIONS-Each subject used on the average expressions from three to six categories in the free description of his experiences. It does not mean that the subjects did not actually experience more or even all the categories, but only that each subject mentioned the most striking features of his or her experiences. The categories 'awareness/wakefulness' and 'content of awareness' were most often used. One of the reasons for this may be that in the introduction of the questionnaire pure consciousness was defined as awareness without content, and therefore many may have been reminded of these two aspects of the experience. But the most important reason would seem to be that these categories express the most striking feature of the experience, from which all other aspects (space, time, wholeness) automatically follow. In the psychophysiological group, which did not receive any definition of pure consciousness, these same categories were also the ones most used. In free descriptions it is common that some people write much and some less. It therefore seems likely that all subjects had the same experience even if they did not use expressions from all the different categories to describe their experiences. When both parts of the questionnaire (the open part and the 'special' part) are seen as one, then everyone in the questionnaire group (except two or three who did not answer all the questions) used the categories time, space, self-awareness, and sensory perceptions. In the open part of the questionnaire three out of four used expressions from the category 'awareness I wakefulness', and even more people used the category 'content of awareness'. Only one third described the emotional sides of the experience, but it is reasonable to assume that if the others had been asked about this, their answers would not have differed much from the given answers. This is also the case with physiological functions. All physiological tests of the TM technique have shown that oxygen consumption is lower during the practice; it is therefore very likely that more people felt a reduction of the physiological activity than the 20 per cent who specifically mentioned this. Again, the reason why few subjects referred to the emotional and physiological content of their experience is not that these aspects were not involved. The experience of pure consciousness, as it appears clearly from the above descriptions, is an experience of unlimited, unbounded, transcendental nature. Pure consciousness is beyond thinking, feelings, emotions, and sensations, and beyond the physical realm. One can easily understand, therefore, why most of the people, when asked to describe it, do not even think of what happened to their body or emotions. They will naturally remember and wish to describe what happened in their consciousness. Within each category the subjects used various expressions to describe the same aspect of their experience. Within the category 'time' for example, there is complete agreement among the subjects, both in the questionnaire group and the psychophysiological group, in describing the same aspect, namely that time is experienced as infinite without boundaries. The picture that is given of the different aspects of the experience of pure consciousness and the mental activity previous to it is summarized below: Content of awareness: The mental activity becomes less. The thoughts are fewer, vaguer, get less 1576

22 SEVEREIDE METABOLIC, BIOCHEMICAL, AND CARDIOVASCULAR CHANGES: PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS -PAPER 197 attention, and fade away until they completely disappear. Sensory perceptions: Sounds, kinaesthetic, and other sensory impressions gradually become weaker and finally disappear from the awareness. On passing over to pure consciousness one may experience a kind of light. ('The light became more intensified till nothing was left but just being there.') During pure consciousness, however, there is no experience of light. ('Not dark or light as we know it.' 'A very "bright" experience although it does not involve imagination of light.') Physiological functions: As the mental activity becomes less, the activity in the body also becomes less; breathing is less; the heart beats more calmly; the body gets more and more relaxed until the physiological functions reach a minimum. Awareness /wakefulness: As thoughts and sensory perception fade away the 'underlying' consciousness comes more clearly into the forefront. It becomes more and more dominant, and finally only consciousness exists with no content but itself. Time /space /wholeness: The time and space dimension is erased, boundaries become vaguer and fainter until consciousness is experienced as an infinite, indivisible wholeness without boundaries. Self-awareness: The subject-object relationship fades away as the content of consciousness disappears. When all objects, all contents, are gone only the self remains, without any objects, and is experienced as one with pure consciousness. Feelings: The calming down of mental and physical activity and the dissolving of boundaries is accompanied by an increasing feeling of peace and harmony. When all boundaries are gone, and pure consciousnes-s is experienced, there is a feeling of complete peace and harmony. The descriptions indicate that the feeling of peace and rest increases until the transition to pure consciousness. During the actual experience of pure consciousness there is no longer a feeling of rest and peace, but pure consciousness is complete calmness-it is full, complete, without any activity or content. DISCUSSION PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL STUDY RESPIRATION RATE-The reduction of respiration rate during TM in the non-pc group (18.8 per cent) was in full accordance with studies of oxygen consumption by Wallace (27), Corey (7), and Dhanaraj and Singh (8). The reduction in the PC group was much greater ( 43.1 per cent); the reason for this may be that this group was very advanced. The PC and non-pc groups had been practising TM for about the same number of years, but the PC group had spent three times as many months on residence courses as compared to the non-pc group. It is possible that the residence courses, providing extra meditation and rest, result in a more concentrated effect of TM, and that this benefit can explain the greater reduction of respiration rate in the PC group. One should, however, be aware that the results of oxygen (Oz) consumption measurements cannot directly be compared to measurements of respiration rate, because a reduction of respiration rate is not necessarily accompanied by a reduction of Oz consumption. It is interesting that Dhanaraj and Singh (8) measured the tidal volume during TM and during rest lying down and found that during TM the breath was slower and shallower whereas during ordinary rest it was slower and deeper. It is likely therefore that the reduction of respiration rate in this study is actually an expression of lower Oz consumption and lower metabolic rate. Farrow (9) measured Oz consumption and respiration rate several times in one advanced meditator, comparable to the subjects in the PC group, and found an average reduction in Oz consumption of 40 per cent, with a maximum of 60 per cent, compared to the periods with eyes closed before TM. The respiration rate in the same measurements showed an average reduction of 50 per cent. The respiration patterns in the present study during the experience of pure consciousness are completely in accordance with Farrow's study (9, p. 120). Farrow concludes that there is no appreciable compensatory hyperventilation after the periods of pure consciousness, basing his conclusion primarily on the fact that there was no dramatic increase in Oz consumption after periods of pure consciousness. After periods during which the subject was asked to hold the breath for as long as the typical experience of pure consciousness lasted, the Oz consumption increased 4.2 times compared to the periods following pure consciousness. Farrow also did not find any change in the respiration quotient during TM. The data in the present study support the conclusion that there is no compensatory Oz consumption after periods of pure consciousness -the respiration pattern did not indicate any, and the average respiration rate for the periods between pure consciousness was 1577

23 obviously lower than the average for the period before TM. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that the periods of pure consciousness are parallel to the periods of greatly reduced breathing, and that the 'deepest' periods during TM are correlated with the lowest metabolic rate. HEART RATE-Previous studies have shown that the average reduction of heart rate during the whole TM period is much less than the reduction of 02 consumption (7, 28). The present study shows similar results: in both experimental groups the reduction was about 3 beats I min which proved to be significantly greater than the reduction found in the control group. The reduction in heart rate of about 5 beats/min during periods of pure consciousness, as compared to the periods just before and just after, was greater than the reduction during the whole TM period. Moreover, the heart rate in the periods just before and just after pure consciousness was lower than the average heart rate during TM for the PC group. This indicates that the difference between pure consciousness and the periods before and after cannot be attributed to the increase in heart rate as a result of the subject pressing the push button. To push the button actually involves physical activity, but if this activity should lead to an increase in heart rate, then the values for the periods before and after PC would be higher than the value for the rest of the TM period, during which the subject did not engage in any kind of physical activity. ' Nevertheless, to test what effect the signalling had on the different physiological measures, four subjects were tested without having to push the button in connection with the experience of pure consciousness. The subjects said that it was much more comfortable to meditate when they did not have to think about signalling. The respiration rate was somewhat lower during this meditation compared to the first meditation for the same subjects, but the reduction of heart rate before, during, and after periods of strongly reduced respiration was the same as in the first meditation. Also the skin resistance responses were the same in the two meditations, but there were fewer artifacts as a result of movements in the periods without signalling. SKIN RESISTANCE-For skin resistance responses above 500 ohms, the level of the PC group was much lower than that of the control group before and during TM. Also the non-pc group showed signifi- cantly lower levels before and during TM as compared to controls. The failure of the PC group to show a significant decrease in skin resistance responses during TM is clearly due to the fact that the incidence of spontaneous skin resistance responses in this group was already stabilized at a very low rate even outside TM. Several other studies have shown that the number of spontaneous skin resistance responses is lower in TM meditators both during usual rest and during TM ( 5, 17, 30). The number of spontaneous skin resistance responses has been used to define the level of stress of a person (16, 24). During anger the number of responses increases ( 1); it also increases when the level of adrenaline and noradrenaline rises (22). The number of responses has been shown to increase in persons subjected to stress and strain ( 13, 14, 20, 32). The results of the measurements of skin resistance responses, like the measurements of respiration rate, and to some extent heart rate, indicate that regular practice of TM results in a deeper level of relaxation in general, and not only during TM. Both the PC and non-pc groups had significantly lower respiration leve!s and fewer skin resistance responses than the control group during the period of closed eyes before TM. To summarize we can state that this study supports the results of previous studies which have shown that the metabolic rate decreases significantly during TM. TM AND SLEEP-An important question remains as to the physiological differences between the state of pure consciousness and sleep. Wallace (25) concluded on the basis of his study of 02 consumption, C02 elimination, heart rate, skin resistance, and EEG that TM does not involve sleep, but is a wakeful hypometabolic state. Banquet (2), Banquet et al. ( 4), Banquet and Sailhan (3), and West (29) drew the same conclusion on the basis of EEG measurements, and Jevning ( 12) found biochemical changes distinguishing TM from sleep. Younger et al. (31), Pagano et al. (19), and Fenwick et al. (10) measured the EEG and found evidence of sleep during TM. Levine et al. ( 15) carried out a more detailed analysis of EEG data during TM using the COSPAR method (Coherence Spectral Array) and found a clear difference between sleep and TM. During TM there occurred a specific 'coherence' pattern. Levine et al. observed that, if the subject fell asleep during the practice of TM, the coherence pattern disappeared during these periods of sleep. 1578

24 SEVEREIDE METABOLIC, BIOCHEMICAL, AND CARDIOVASCULAR CHANGES: PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS -PAPER 197 It should be noted here that if an individual is particularly fatigued prior to a session of TM, drowsiness or sleep may occur during the practice. If the individual is overtired the nervous system will be unable to support the experience of more subtle levels of the thinking process during TM. As a result the physiology will take whatever rest is needed to remove the fatigue in order that further refined experience may then become possible. The results of the present study support the conclusion that the state experienced during TM cannot be interpreted as a kind of sleep state. The theory that TM is a kind of sleep cannot explain the large decrease in the respiration rate in the PC group, neither can it explain the difference between the two experimental groups nor the difference between these groups and the control group. DISCUSSION PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY The descriptions in this study were precise and gave the impression that the persons who described the experience of pure consciousness had the same experience. Since all subjects in the study were TM meditators it would be of great value to compare their descriptions with descriptions from persons who do not practise the TM technique. Stace (23) has studied descriptions from people of different time epochs and of different cultures, and he claims that there exists an experience that can be characterized by no content in the consciousness, just consciousness in itself. Stace says that there exist in old philosophical and religious books thousands of descriptions of this experience. Stace mentions two typical descriptions forming the main basis of his discussion. The first is from the Upanishads: It is pure unitary consciousness wherein awareness of the world and of multiplicity is completely obliterated. It is ineffable peace. It is the Supreme Good. It is one without a second. It is the Self. This experience was recorded many thousand years ago and can be compared point by point to the descriptions in the questionnaire. If this description had been included into this study it would not stand out among the other descriptions. All aspects are mentioned: pure consciousness without content being identical with the Self; the time/ space dimension is experienced as one wholeness ('One without a second'; 'unitary'), and the experience is indescribably peaceful. If we move to the nineteenth century we find this description from Symonds: It consisted in a gradual but swiftly progressive obliteration of space, time, sensation, and the multifarious factors of experience which seem to qualify what we are pleased to call our Self. In proportion, as these conditions of ordinary consciousness were subtracted, the sense of an underlying oressential consciousness acquired intensity. At last nothing remained but a pure, absolute abstract Self. This quotation contains also a description of the activity in the mind before the content completely disappeared. This description would also have passed by unnoticed in this study; in particular the description of how the underlying consciousness became stronger as the content gradually disappeared is very similar to the reports of the majority of the subjects. Out of the evidence from Christian, Islamic, Jewish, Buddhist, and Hindu sources, and also from the statements of the pagan mystic Plotinus, and the modern Englishman J. A. Symonds, we may assert, according to Stace (23), that this experience of pure consciousness is a definite type of experience which is the same in all cultures, religions, time periods, and social conditions, although its interpretation may vary according to the background of the subject. Therefore, in comparing the descriptions indicating pure consciousness as collected by Stace to the experiences described by the TM meditators in this study we may conclude that all these reports refer to one and the same experience. DISTINGUISHING THE EXPERIENCE OF PURE CON SCIOUSNESS FROM OTHER EXPERIENCES-While the descriptions in the questionnaires indicate that the subjects all had the same experience, one might ask whether this experience is related to other experiences, and whether the experience of pure consciousness might be a misinterpretation of another experience. It might be argued that the subjects, because they expect to experience pure consciousness, would interpret every kind of vague and undefinable experience as pure consciousness. It is not very likely, however, that expectation plays a major part in the experience of pure consciousness during TM, because the central principle of the technique is innocence, not trying to control mental activity in any way. Expectations hinder the process of meditation itself and prevent the complete settling down of mental activity. 1579

25 In the following discussion we will first describe possible experiences, or states, which may be confused with pure consciousness, and then indicate how pure consciousness is distinct from them. Sleep-absence of consciousness. During the practice of TM the mind gradually settles down, while the body reaches a profound level of rest. Would it not be possible for subjects to fall asleep or doze off for a while, and when they come to awareness again, interpret the previous period as pure consciousness? The descriptions in this study go against this assumption. One of the most striking features of the experience is that subjects report that they were more conscious and more awake, and in addition many emphasize that the experience is very unlike sleep. Subjects do not feel drowsy when they go into the experience, nor do they undergo a gradually dimishing drowsiness when they come out of the experience, but they feel alert and awake before, during, and after experiencing pure consciousness. The experience is not remembered as sleep, but as a conscious experience,, as consciousness itself without any content. Many sleep studies (11, 21) have shown that during sleep usually some mental activity is going on, more during REM than during NREM sleep. The reported 'contentlessness' of pure consciousness, together with the awareness of it indicates the fundamental difference of this quality of consciousness as compared to dreaming and sleeping. Blankness of mind. A common experience which might possibly be misinterpreted as the experience of pure consciousness is 'blankness of mind' or 'having no thoughts'. During such periods one does not think of anything specific, and if asked what one is thinking, the answer is usually 'nothing'. In the questionnaire the subjects were asked about this experience: 'In some situations, for instance, while sunbathing, it may happen that we are not thinking about anything in particular. This experience is often described as "blankness of mind" or "having no thoughts". Have you ever had this experience? If yes, how would you characterize this experience as compared to the experience of pure consciousness?' More than 80 per cent indicated having had this experience, confirming the impression that it is a common experience. All those who had experienced 'blankness of mind' answered that this experience was very different from the experience of pure consciousness. Most of them indicated that 'blankness of mind' was a dull experience, whereas pure consciousness is characterized by full wakefulness and unboundedness. Because individuals knowing both experiences can so clearly distinguish between the two, it is unlikely that the experience of pure consciousness is a misinterpretation of the experience of not thinking of anything in particular. Absorbed in thoughts. Important signs of the experience of pure consciousness are that the time/space dimension is cancelled and the Self is experienced as unbounded. During the experience that may be designated as 'absorbed in thoughts' it may happen that one is so absorbed in one's thoughts that one completely forgets time, space, and even oneself, one does not know who one is or where one is. It has been claimed that pure consciousness may be actually identical to this experience. The subjects were also asked about this experience: 'Sometimes it may happen that we are so absorbed in our thoughts that we completely forget where we are and who we are. Have you ever had this experience? If yes, how would you characterize this experience compared to the experience of pure consciousness?' More than 70 per cent of the subjects answered that they knew this experience. The descriptions indicated that the experience of being completely absorbed in one's thoughts is again very different from the experience of pure consciousness. During the state of being 'absorbed in thoughts' the consciousness is domin~ted by the content, whereas during pure consciousness there is no content in the awareness: Completely different. When absorbed in thoughts the mind is overshadowed, whereas in pure consciousness the mind is fully awake and clear in itself. Feelings, emotions. It has been claimed thal the experience of pure consciousness is actually a very deep, refined feeling, which is misinterpreted as pure consciousness just because it is so vague. In the reports several subjects mentioned that they felt an ever increasing peace and harmony as they approached pure consciousness, but during pure consciousness this feeling was also 'transcended' so that nothing else remained other than consciousness itself. From the descriptions of the activity before pure consciousness it is clear that the subjects distinguish between the mental activity (including feelings), which becomes vaguer and more refined, and the underlying consciousness, which becomes clearer and more apparent, until that only exists, free from anything, :unbounded. 1580

26 SEVEREIDE METABOLIC, BIOCHEMICAL, AND CARDIOVASCULAR CHANGES: PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS -PAPER 197 CRITERIA TO DECIDE WHETHER AN EXPERIENCE IS A MISINTERPRETATION OR NOT-Several important criteria can be said to establish the authenticity of a subjective experience. These criteria will now be applied to determine whether the experience of pure consciousness is a misinterpretation or a genuine experience. 1. The accuracy of the description of the experience: The descriptions of pure consciousness were very accurate and several details of the experience were described. The descriptions gave the impression that the subjects themselves had no doubt whatsoever that the experiences described were real and right. 2. The amount of time elapsed between the occurrence of the experience and its description: The experience of pure consciousness was written down immediately after, or at most two hours after it was experienced. 3. The frequency with which the subjects had the experience: The subjects in this study experienced pure consciousness frequently. During the last seven days one third had experienced pure consciousness 20 to 100 times, and one fourth more than 100 times. Since the subjects were so familiar with the experience it is likely that their description of it was correct. 4. The mental context in which the experience took place: The descriptions of the mental activity before pure consciousness were in accordance with the descriptions of the actual experience; the aspects of time, space, the self, the content of consciousness, the underlying consciousness, all developed, according to the descriptions, in the direction of pure consciousness. 5. The general physical and mental state of the subjects: There was nothing in the general state of health of the subjects that would give reason to doubt the correctness of their descriptions of pure consciousness. Studies have shown that the regular practice of TM leads to an improvement in health-in fact, this may be the most important reason why people start practising the TM technique. 6. The state of the subjects during the actual experience: Physiological measurements indicate that the state of the body during pure consciousness is unique, and different from sleep, dream, or other psychological states that can be defined physiologically. The physiological state seems to be in accordance with the subjective experience-both states are characterized by a minimum of activity along with awareness, restful alertness. 7. The number of people who have had the same experience: The subjects in this study described their experience in a very similar way, indicating that they had had the same experience. Furthermore, the same experience of pure consciousness has been described in many different cultures in different ages. 8. The availability of the same experience to everyone: The theory behind TM states that anyone can experience pure consciousness by practising the TM technique. Of the subjects in this study, 8.1 per cent had been practising the TM technique for more than four years before they felt that they started to experience pure consciousness clearly. However, about half had had the experience during the first week after the instruction. Furthermore. 34 subjects had experienced pure consciousness before they learnt the technique. Out of 727 individuals randomly selected from those taking the TM course, it was found that 41 per cent had experienced the state of pure consciousness during the first three days after they learnt the technique. This seems to indicate that the TM technique is a systematic method whereby even individuals who are sceptical about the existence of the experience, have the possibility to experience pure consciousness for themselves. About two million people have learnt the TM technique, and if as many people continue to take TM courses in the coming years, it is likely that in a few years pure consciousness will be a familiar and widespread experience. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION A physiological and phenomenological study of a wakeful, hypometabolic state (TM) and the state of pure consciousness experienced during TM was carried out and six questions were answered: 1. ls there a decrease in the general physiological activity during TM? The first study showed that there is a decrease in physiological activity during TM, as measured by respiration rate, heart rate, and skin resistance. Furthermore, the significantly lower respiration rate and significantly lower incidence of GSR responses noted in the experimental groups at pre-test as compared to the control group indicate that the restful 1581

27 style of physiology characteristic of TM had been stabilized outside of the practice. 2. Is the metabolic rate lowest during pure consciousness as compared to the rest of the TM period? During periods of pure consciousness (which lasted on the average 16.2 seconds-with a range from 10 to 44 seconds) there was practically no exhalation or inhalation, and the heart rate was lower than the average value for the whole TM period. 3. Is the metabolic rate lower during TM and pure consciousness as compared to sleep? Studies of 02 consumption during sleep show a decrease in metabolic rate of 10 to 20 per cent. The decrease in respiration rate in the most experienced group was 43.1 per cent and during the periods of pure consciousness there was a further decrease in respiration. 4. Is there a reduction of mental activity during TM? Subjects reported a decrease of mental activity during TM. Thoughts became vaguer and faded away. Sounds, body sensations, and other sensory perceptions gradually became weaker and a feeling of calmness and peace spread in the mind. 5. Is there awareness even when physical and mental activity are reduced during TM? Subjects indicated that while mental activity settled down, the awareness became clearer and the mind was fully alert during TM. 6. Is there awareness together with no or minimal mental activity during the experience of pure consciousness? The descriptions indicate that during the experience of pure consciousness there was just consciousness without any content, i.e. consciousness was present but there were no thoughts or other sensory perceptions. Since there was no content or activity in the awareness there were no boundaries in time and space, just a state of complete stillness. The discussion of the phenomenological experiences showed that it was unlikely that the experience of pure consciousness was a misinterpretation of another experience like sleep, 'blankness of mind', being absorbed in thoughts, or a deep, refined feeling. The following points support the conclusion that the experiences of pure consciousness reported are genuine experiences of pure consciousness: 1. The descriptions are precise and do not give the impression that the subjects had any doubt about the rightness and authenticity of their experience. 2. The experience was written down immediately after the experience, or at most two hours after the last experience. 3. The subjects in the study had experienced the state very frequently and were thus very familiar with the experience. 4. The description of the activity in the mind before pure consciousness was in accordance with the description of the actual experience. 5. The general state of health of the subjects gave no reason to doubt that the experience was described correctly. 6. The physiological measurements indicated that the experience can be defined physiologically by the respiration pattern and that it is a unique experience. The description of the activity in the mind was in accordance with the measurements of the general physiological activity. 7. All subjects described the experience in the same way, and the descriptions were in full accordance with descriptions of the same experience by persons from different cultures and different time epochs. 8. Everyone can learn the TM technique and thereby has the possibility to experience pure consciousness himself. In conclusion we can say that the Transcendental Meditation programme has brought about an unprecedented phenomenon in human history by making the age-old and universal experience of pure consciousness, and the practical benefits of this experience in day-to-day life, available for everyone to enjoy. This phenomenon has been scientifically validated not only in the physiological and phenomenological aspects of the present study but also by numerous other physiological, psychological, and sociological research studies. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The editors thankfully acknowledge the cooperation of Mrs Randi Gunn Severeide and Dr Harald S. Harung jr in preparing this paper. They also wish to thank Mr Ola Severeide who translated the manuscript into English and Mr Leif Stinessen who supervised the research project. The support of the Norwegian Research Council 1582

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