Detoxification of Chemically Dependent Inmates Federal Bureau of Prisons Clinical Practice Guidelines August 2009

Transcription

1 Detoxification of Chemically Dependent Inmates Federal Bureau of Prisons Clinical Practice Guidelines August 2009 Clinical guidelines are made available to the public for informational purposes only. The Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) does not warrant these guidelines for any other purpose, and assumes no responsibility for any injury or damage resulting from the reliance thereof. Proper medical practice necessitates that all cases are evaluated on an individual basis and that treatment decisions are patient-specific. Consult the BOP Clinical Practice Guidelines Web page to determine the date of the most recent update to this document:

2 What=s New in the Document? Revisions to the December 2000 version of the BOP Clinical Practice Guidelines for are outlined below. New appendices include a quick reference guide for treatment issues (see Appendix 1, Detoxification Overview) and a listing of diagnostic (DSM IV) criteria for substance abuse, intoxication, and withdrawal for selected substances (see Appendix 2). Psychiatric and suicidal complications are emphasized throughout the document. The issue of inmate placement while undergoing detoxification is discussed (see Section 5). The kindling phenomenon in alcohol dependence is explained (see discussion of kindling in Section 6). Kindling is a phenomenon in alcohol withdrawal in which the severity of withdrawal symptoms increases after repeated withdrawal episodes. A form is provided for recording ongoing assessments of inmates in acute alcohol withdrawal utilizing the CIWA-Ar scale (see Appendix 3). A CIWA-Ar score should be ascertained prior to initiation of treatment for alcohol withdrawal and should be calculated throughout the withdrawal period to assess the severity and progression of withdrawal symptoms and to determine the need for ongoing treatment. The use of carbamazepine in alcohol withdrawal, particularly for individuals with alcoholrelated seizures is discussed. (See Carbamazepine in Section 6). The role of clonidine in alcohol withdrawal (see Adjunctive Treatments in Section 6) and in opiate withdrawal (see Clonidine treatment in Section 9) is clarified. The dangers associated with barbiturate withdrawal are emphasized (see Section 8). The use of buprenorphine in the treatment of opiate dependence is explained (see Buprenorphine treatment in Section 9). Brief sections on cocaine/stimulants (see Section 10) and inhalants (see Section 11) have been added. The Definitions section is expanded i

3 Table of Contents 1. Purpose Introduction Detection of Substance Abuse and Treatment of Withdrawal Management of Inmates with Complicating Medical and Psychiatric Conditions Placement of Inmates for Detoxification Alcohol Withdrawal Benzodiazepine Withdrawal Barbiturate Withdrawal Opiate Withdrawal Cocaine/Stimulants Inhalants Definitions References Appendix 1. Detoxification Overview Appendix 2: Selected DSM-IV Criteria Related to Substance Abuse Appendix 3. Alcohol Withdrawal Assessment and Treatment Flowsheet Appendix 4: Symptoms and Signs of Drug Abuse Appendix 5: Benzodiazepine Dose Equivalents Appendix 6: Barbiturate Dose Equivalents Appendix 7: Patient Information Detoxification from Alcohol Appendix 8: Patient Information Detoxification from Benzodiazepines Appendix 9: Patient Information Detoxification from Barbiturates Appendix 10: Patient Information Detoxification from Opiates (Narcotics) Tables Table 1. Overview of Treatment of Alcohol Withdrawal, Based on CIWA-Ar score... 7 Table 2. Recommended Schedule for Lorazepam Treatment of Alcohol Withdrawal... 8 Table 3. Symptoms of Benzodiazepine Withdrawal Table 4. Symptoms of Barbiturate Withdrawal ii

4 1. Purpose The Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) Clinical Practice Guidelines for Detoxification of Chemically Dependent Inmates provide recommended standards for the medical management of withdrawal from addictive substances for federal inmates. 2. Introduction Substance use disorders pose a significant and expensive public health problem. Substance abuse affects not only the substance abusers and their families, but also society as a whole through increases in crime, domestic violence, highway fatalities, incarceration, and health care costs. Any substance that alters perception, mood, or cognition can be abused. Commonly identified substances of abuse include illicit drugs, alcohol, and certain prescription drugs which act through their hallucinogenic, stimulant, sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, or narcotic effects. Other less commonly recognized substances of abuse include medications with anticholinergic, antihistaminic, or stimulant effects, e.g., tricyclic antidepressants, antiparkinsonian agents, low potency antipsychotics, anti-emetics, and cold and allergy preparations. The development of dependency is related to the nature of the substance used, its route of use, the amount and frequency of use, the presence of co-morbid psychiatric disorders, and other biopsychosocial factors, as well as genetic and environmental factors. Approximately 15% of all regular users of substances develop substance dependence. Substance abuse disorders are highly prevalent among inmate populations, affecting an estimated 30 60% of inmates. Drug intoxication and withdrawal may be particularly evident at the time of incarceration. The Bureau of Justice Statistics reports that an estimated 70% of all inmates in local jail facilities in the U.S. had committed a drug offense or used drugs regularly, and an estimated 35% were under the influence of drugs at the time of the offense. 3. Detection of Substance Abuse and Treatment of Withdrawal The safe and effective treatment of withdrawal syndromes requires that clinicians be alert to the possibility of substance dependence in all new inmate arrivals at their institutions. A concise overview of detoxification is provided in Appendix 1. The DSM IV criteria for abuse, intoxication, and withdrawal from selected substances are provided in Appendix 2. A careful inmate history and clinical assessment is essential. Substance abusers are rarely accurate in their description of patterns of drug use; they can greatly underestimate or deny their substance abuse, as well as overstate the extent of it. Furthermore, because individuals who abuse substances are likely to be abusing multiple substances, the possibility of more than one addiction must be carefully considered; intoxication from multiple drugs will complicate treatment of the withdrawal syndrome. An overview of the clinical presentations of substance abuse is listed in Appendix 4, Symptoms and Signs of Drug Abuse. 1

5 Not all substances of abuse produce clinically significant withdrawal syndromes. However, discontinuing substances on which an individual is dependent will likely produce some psychological symptoms. Withdrawal from substances such as stimulants, cocaine, hallucinogens, and inhalants can be accomplished with psychological support and symptomatic treatment alone, along with periodic reassessment by a health care provider. The intensity of withdrawal cannot always be predicted. The addictive nature of a substance is determined by many factors including the physiology, psychology, and neurochemistry of the individual, as well as characteristics of the substance itself. Generally, the most addictive substances are those that are high-potency, that cross the blood-brain barrier quickly, that have a short half-life, and that produce a significant change in the neurochemistry of the brain. These same characteristics also tend to make a slow and safe withdrawal from the substance more difficult, especially if the substance being abused is used as treatment in the detoxification process. Frequent clinical assessments, along with indicated treatment adjustments (in both dose and frequency) are imperative. Substances that produce dangerous withdrawal syndromes for individuals with physiological dependence include alcohol, sedative/hypnotics, and anxiolytics. Withdrawal from narcotics is not generally considered dangerous, except in pregnant women and the medically debilitated; however, narcotic withdrawal does result in significant symptomatology, which can be markedly reduced with targeted therapies. Whenever possible, the clinician should substitute a long-acting medication for shortacting drugs of addiction. A safe withdrawal plan entails, when feasible, substituting a long-acting, cross-tolerant substance and gradually tapering that substance (not more rapidly than 10 20% per day depending on the substance and the setting available for detoxification). Every effort should be made to ameliorate the inmate s signs and symptoms of alcohol or drug withdrawal. Adequate doses of medication should be used, with frequent reassessment. Inmates experiencing withdrawal should also be kept as physically active as medically permissible. Initiation of withdrawal should be individualized. Substance abuse often leads to significant medical sequelae including liver disease, chronic infections, trauma, cognitive impairment, psychiatric disorders, nutritional deficiencies, and cardiac disease. Detoxification and withdrawal are stressors, and may exacerbate or precipitate medical or psychological decompensation. In some cases, medical stabilization may be preferred to resolve the immediate crisis prior to initiating withdrawal. To the greatest extent possible during detoxification, the provider should control the inmate s access to the prescribed medication regimen. Overdose with either the prescribed medication or with other drugs is always a possibility. Administration of all controlled medications should be directly observed in a pill line. In addition, consider direct observation of ancillary medications (e.g., clonidine). Inmates should be counseled on the dangers of supplementing their detoxification regimens with over-the-counter medications, prescription medications diverted from other inmates, or illicit drugs and alcohol. Detoxification alone is rarely adequate treatment for alcohol and other drug dependencies. Inmate education regarding the detoxification process is a necessary 2

6 component of a successful detoxification plan. In addition, clinicians should conduct periodic assessments to detect the development of any psychiatric symptoms such as depression, suicidal thinking, or underlying psychosis. Inmates should be considered for follow-up psychological support through group therapy, individual counseling, 12-step recovery meetings, or similar programs. These services provide alternative methods of coping with the stresses that trigger alcohol or drug abuse. Psychology staff can also determine whether referrals to drug education or to nonresidential or residential drug treatment programs are indicated. 4. Management of Inmates with Complicating Medical and Psychiatric Conditions Careful consideration should be given to inmates with co-morbid medical and psychiatric conditions, since these patients are at greater risk for severe withdrawal symptoms and complications. Brain injury: Inmates with a history of brain injuries of any type are more likely to suffer seizures and/or delirium during detoxification, and therefore require closer monitoring. Co-morbid seizure disorder: The presence of an underlying seizure disorder needs to be considered when tapering from benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and alcohol. Patients with pre-existing seizure disorders will be more susceptible to seizures as their medications are tapered; a slower taper is indicated for these inmates. Cardiac disease: Inmates with cardiac disease are more sensitive to sympathetic hyperactivity, so careful monitoring and control of symptoms is essential. A slower taper is also indicated for these inmates. Liver and kidney diseases: Inmates with liver or renal disease may metabolize drugs and medications more slowly; as such, they require closer monitoring for drug toxicity and possible adjustments as treatment regimens are tapered. Psychiatric disorders: Inmates with pre-existing psychiatric conditions may suffer an exacerbation of their illness during detoxification. A collaborative treatment effort with psychology and psychiatry staff is warranted for management of these inmates. Inmates without pre-existing psychiatric illness may also experience significant psychological distress during detoxification, including the development of suicidal ideation, plan, and intent. A careful assessment of the inmate s mental status, with particular attention to thoughts of self-harm, should be part of every inmate evaluation during detoxification. Elderly inmates: Elderly inmates are at increased risk of complications during detoxification. The elderly are less likely to show marked sympathetic hyperactivity during withdrawal, but they are just as likely to suffer a severe withdrawal syndrome. Detoxification in the elderly is further complicated by these factors: a greater need for prescription drugs and the potential for drug-drug interactions; a greater risk of drug toxicity from slower drug metabolism; and the higher incidence of complicating medical conditions such as heart disease and cognitive disorders. Careful monitoring, ongoing titration of medications, and inpatient hospitalization for complicated patients may be necessary. 3

7 Pregnancy: Pregnancy significantly complicates detoxification efforts. Many medications cross the placenta and/or are secreted in breast milk. Careful consideration must be given to the known and unknown effects of medications on the fetus or infant, and these must be weighed against the risks of detoxification. Pregnant women generally should be maintained on their medications throughout their pregnancy, but each case is unique and should be managed in close consultation with an obstetrical specialist. Pregnant women on methadone ordinarily should not be detoxified, as this increases the risk of miscarriage and premature labor. Refer to the BOP Pharmacy Services Program Statement with regards to methadone. Pregnant women with alcohol dependence should be managed in an inpatient setting, due to the risk of miscarriage during detoxification. Risk of suicide: The frequency of suicide attempts is substantially higher among patients with a substance use disorder. Frequent and thorough patient assessments are indicated during the withdrawal period with particular attention to thoughts of self-harm. Short-stay inmates: Inmates with short sentences, or with lengths of stay that are thirty days or less, generally should not be detoxified off benzodiazepines or barbiturates if these agents are currently medically indicated. However, opiate detoxification can be completed safely in less than two weeks, and alcohol detoxification is a necessity for all inmates who present with alcohol dependence or withdrawal. 5. Placement of Inmates for Detoxification Detoxification can be safely and effectively accomplished for inmates in a variety of housing placements, including: locked jail units, general population, observation cells in the health services unit, and Special Housing Units, or when necessary as inpatients in a community hospital or Medical Referral Center (MRC). The specific housing placement should be determined on a case-by-case basis, in accordance with BOP policy and through multidisciplinary recommendations made by health care, psychology, and custody staff. The optimal placement will depend on the type of substance abuse, the severity of the withdrawal syndrome, the inmate s co-morbid medical and psychiatric conditions, security concerns, and the resources of the institution. If an inmate is placed in a locked unit or Special Housing Unit for detoxification, their medications, medical assessments, and ongoing monitoring must all be provided in a timely manner. If detoxification in a locked unit or Special Housing Unit cannot be accomplished with these assurances, strong consideration should be given to one of two options: either inpatient detoxification or medical stabilization and maintenance, with postponement of attempts at detoxification. Transferring patients from mainline facilities to MRCs for the management of withdrawal is not typically indicated or necessary. All medications prescribed for the treatment of withdrawal should be administered via directly observed therapy at pill lines. Ideally, dosing should be three times a day or less, so as to accommodate pill lines at most institutions. 4

8 6. Alcohol Withdrawal Diagnosis of Alcohol Dependence Screening: As the initial step in diagnosing alcohol dependence, all incoming inmates should be screened at admission for a history of alcohol abuse. Inmates presenting with alcohol intoxication should be presumed to have alcohol dependence until proven otherwise. Despite the difficulty in obtaining an accurate history from an intoxicated inmate, a full assessment should be attempted. Withdrawal syndrome: The alcohol withdrawal syndrome can develop in any individual who has a history of regular, heavy use of alcohol, has a known dependence on alcohol, or has clinical signs of intoxication. Alcohol withdrawal syndromes can be mild, moderate, or lifethreatening. The severity of an individual s alcohol withdrawal syndrome is difficult to predict, although a history of problems with withdrawal makes it likely that a similarly severe withdrawal syndrome will occur again. Individuals with a high blood alcohol level (>100 mg/dl) and concurrent signs of withdrawal are at particularly high risk for a severe withdrawal syndrome. Uncomplicated alcohol withdrawal is generally completed within five days. Alcohol withdrawal symptoms can develop within a few hours of decreasing or discontinuing use. Symptoms generally peak within hours after abstinence begins. Early signs and symptoms of withdrawal include gastrointestinal distress, anxiety, irritability, increased blood pressure, and increased heart rate. Later, symptoms of moderate intensity develop, including insomnia, tremor, fever, anorexia, and diaphoresis. Withdrawal seizures can occur at various times during alcohol withdrawal, but generally begin within 48 hours of the last drink. Withdrawal delirium, delirium tremens, usually begins hours after the last drink. If allowed to progress, delirium can result in changes in consciousness, marked autonomic instability, electrolyte imbalances, hallucinations, and death. With appropriate intensive treatment, mortality from delirium tremens is markedly reduced (to 1% or less). In many alcoholics, the severity of withdrawal symptoms increases after repeated withdrawal episodes. This is known as the kindling phenomenon, and suggests that even patients who experience only mild withdrawal should be treated aggressively to reduce the severity of withdrawal symptoms in subsequent episodes. Kindling also may contribute to a patient s relapse risk and to alcohol-related brain damage and cognitive impairment. Patient evaluation: A careful patient history and physical examination by a clinician is indicated for all inmates suspected of clinically significant alcohol use: An assessment should be made of the frequency of alcohol use, length of time used, amount used, symptoms of withdrawal when use is decreased or discontinued, and the date and amount of alcohol last consumed. If alcohol dependence is suspected, further inmate history should cover, in part: other substances used, signs and symptoms of gastritis or gastrointestinal hemorrhage, history of trauma (especially head trauma), liver disease, history of seizure disorder, pancreatitis, psychiatric illness, and suicidal ideation. 5

9 Physical examination is necessary to evaluate the inmate for the aforementioned conditions, as well as to assess vital signs, possible cardiac and lung disease, and neurologic and mental status. Laboratory evaluation should include a complete blood count, comprehensive serum chemistry panel, urine toxicology (for medical reasons, not correctional), and a pregnancy test for women. The medical indications for other studies such as a chest radiograph, electrocardiogram, viral hepatitis serologies, and screening for sexually transmitted diseases should be based on the individual assessment. Inmates may be brought to the Health Services Unit for assessment of intoxication after being given a breathalyzer test by a correctional officer. Although performance of this test remains the function of Correctional Services, the results are medically relevant and should be ascertained and assessed by the clinician. Prior to initiating treatment, the inmate s status should be scored using the Clinical Institute Withdrawal Assessment of Alcohol, revised (CIWA-Ar), (BP-S ). The CIWA-Ar is an evidence-based scoring system that should be used over time to objectively assess the severity and progression of alcohol withdrawal symptoms. The CIWA scoring system and a form for recording CIWA-Ar scores are provided in Appendix 3. Treatment of Alcohol Withdrawal Inmates experiencing alcohol withdrawal should be counseled by a health care provider on the signs and symptoms of withdrawal, the anticipated treatment plan, and patient responsibilities. Educational information in Appendix 7, Patient Information Detoxification from Alcohol should be used when appropriate. Specific treatment strategies for alcohol withdrawal should be determined by the condition of the individual inmate, and should be reviewed and approved by a physician. The following guidelines should be taken into consideration: Thiamine Replacement All inmates with suspected alcohol dependence should be treated with thiamine, 100 mg either orally or intramuscularly, daily for at least 10 days. Due to the potential dire consequences of non-compliance, oral doses should be administered at pill line. This 10-day regimen should always precede administering parenteral glucose to persons with alcohol intoxication; otherwise, the glucose infusions can precipitate Wernicke s disease and the severe cardiovascular complications associated with thiamine deficiency. Wernicke s encephalopathy is characterized by ophthalmoplegia, ataxia, and confusion, and it is often undetected and under-diagnosed. Left untreated, Wernicke s encephalopathy can advance to Korsakoff s syndrome (alcohol amnestic syndrome), which is associated with significant morbidity and a 15 20% fatality rate. Benzodiazepine Therapy Benzodiazepines are the mainstay of alcohol withdrawal treatment in the correctional setting. Benzodiazepine treatment for alcohol withdrawal in the BOP should be based on the CIWA-Ar score (Appendix 3), in accordance with the guidelines shown in Table 1 below. 6

10 Table 1. Overview of Treatment of Alcohol Withdrawal, Based on CIWA-Ar score CIWA-Ar Score Level of Withdrawal Recommended Treatment <10 Mild Supportive, non-pharmacologic therapy and close monitoring are indicated (unless patient has history of alcohol withdrawal seizures or co-morbid cardiovascular conditions) Moderate Medication (lorazepam) is indicated to reduce symptoms and the risk of major complications. >15 Severe Strong consideration should be given to hospitalizing inmates who exhibit severe symptoms, as they are at increased risk for serious complications. Lorazepam is the recommended benzodiazepine for managing alcohol withdrawal in most inmates: Lorazepam does not require cytochrome oxidation for metabolism, so its clearance is not impaired by liver disease, a common co-morbidity for inmate populations. This is in contrast to other benzodiazepines such as chlordiazepoxide, diazepam, and clonazepam, which are metabolized in the liver and can accumulate with slow metabolizers or with liver disease. Another benefit of lorazepam is that it can be administered orally, intravenously, or intramuscularly unlike diazepam and chlordiazepoxide, which should never be given intramuscularly because of erratic absorption. Table 2 (page 8) outlines lorazepam dosing recommendations based upon CIWA-Ar scores. For inmates with moderate to severe withdrawal, symptom-triggered therapy based upon CIWA-Ar scores is recommended and has been shown to require less overall benzodiazepine use. A fixed-dose schedule is recommended for inmates with mild withdrawal who are being treated with lorazepam because they have either a history of alcohol withdrawal seizures or co-morbid cardiovascular conditions. For information about benzodiazepine dependence, see Section 7, Benzodiazepine Withdrawal. Carbamazepine Carbamazepine may be used to treat alcohol withdrawal symptoms in patients who have a history of alcohol-related seizures. Carbamazepine dosing is generally started at 600 to 1,200 mg on the first day in divided doses and is generally tapered to 0 mg over 5 to 10 days. The following tapered dosing schedule can be used: day 1 ( mg); day 2 (500 mg); day 3 (400 mg); day 4 (300 mg); and day 5 (200 mg). Carbamazepine is just as effective as the benzodiazepines in generally healthy individuals with mild-to-moderate alcohol withdrawal. However, a limitation of carbamazepine is its interaction with multiple medications that undergo hepatic oxidative metabolism. Thus, carbamazepine may be less useful in older patients or in those with multiple medical problems. 7

11 Table 2. Recommended Schedule for Lorazepam Treatment of Alcohol Withdrawal Mild Withdrawal (CIWA-Ar = 8 9) Treatment Schedule (based on CIWA-Ar) Moderate Withdrawal (CIWA-Ar = 10 15) Note: All inmates with alcohol withdrawal should be treated with thiamine (100 mg orally or intramuscularly) daily for at least 10 days. Most Inmates Repeat CIWA-Ar every 4 8 hours, until CIWA-Ar has remained less than 10 for 24 hours without medication. Inmates with History of Alcohol Withdrawal Seizures 1. Administer lorazepam every hour: 2 4 mg IM, PO, or IV. 2. Repeat CIWA-Ar in one hour (90 minutes, if giving lorazepam orally). 3. Repeat lorazepam 2 4 mg every minutes until CIWA-Ar score is less than 10. Then, discontinue lorazepam. 4. Repeat CIWA-Ar every 4 8 hours until the score has remained less than 10 for 24 hours. If the score rises again within this 24-hour period, repeat steps 1 3 above. Severe Withdrawal (CIWA-Ar >15) Hospitalization for inpatient detoxification and monitoring is strongly suggested. Lorazepam is administered according to the same schedule as described under Moderate Withdrawal. However, an increase in frequency of both lorazepam and CIWA-Ar may be indicated. Lorazepam can be given up to 2 4 mg IV, as frequently as every minutes. Generally, inmates with a history of alcohol withdrawal seizures will present with signs and symptoms of moderate-tosevere withdrawal. Do not give anti-seizure medications unless the inmate also has an underlying seizure disorder. Carbamazepine may be useful in treating patients with a history of alcohol withdrawal seizures. Suggested initial regimen:* Days 1 2: Lorazepam 2 mg, 3x daily Days 3 4: Lorazepam 2 mg, 2x daily Day 5: Lorazepam 2 mg, single dose (AM or HS) ** Days 1 6 monitor 3x daily with CIWA-Ar. Same as above. Inmates with Co-Morbid Cardiovascular Conditions Same as above. Conditions include: hypertension, angina, congestive heart failure, or history of myocardial infarction or stroke. Consider lorazepam treatment, even if only mild withdrawal symptoms. Suggested initial regimen:* Days 1 2: Lorazepam 1 2 mg, 3x daily Days 3 4: Lorazepam 1 2 mg, 2x daily Day 5: Lorazepam 1 2 mg, single dose (AM or HS) ** Days 1-6 monitor 3x daily with CIWA-Ar. Same as above. Same as above. * In these cases, the dose of lorazepam may need to be decreased if the inmate experiences somnolence, ataxic gait, slurred speech, or other signs of medication intoxication. ** If the CIWA-Ar score is greater than or equal to 10 at any time, follow the steps for Moderate Withdrawal or Severe Withdrawal. 8

12 Adjunctive Treatments of Alcohol Withdrawal Many of the symptoms of alcohol withdrawal are caused by increased sympathetic activity. Clonidine has been used successfully to attenuate these symptoms. A variety of dosing schedules for clonidine have been used to suppress acute symptoms of alcohol withdrawal. Generally, a dose of 0.1 to 0.2 mg every 8 hours is adequate to control symptoms. The dose can generally be tapered over 3 5 days as symptoms subside. Decreased renal function may necessitate more frequent monitoring and lower doses. Clonidine s usual side effects include hypotension and somnolence. Treatment with clonidine requires careful monitoring of vital signs, as well as increased vigilance for other withdrawal problems. Clonidine will mask the symptoms of withdrawal and artificially lower the CIWA-Ar score, without decreasing the risk for seizures or delirium tremens. Therefore, coniine should not be utilized for moderate or severe withdrawal. Patients in active substance withdrawal are at increased risk of suicide, and clonidine is fatal in overdose. Extra care is therefore warranted, including monitoring inmates for thoughts of self-harm and limiting its administration to pill line with direct observation. Consider administering crushed immediate-release tablets to prevent tonguing or cheeking of the medication. Anti-seizure medications may have a use in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal, especially in those individuals with underlying seizure disorders. In such cases, antiseizure medications should be given in therapeutic doses with careful attention to blood levels. Anti-seizure medications do not replace the need for benzodiazepines in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal and will not prevent the development of delirium tremens. Individuals in alcohol withdrawal often develop fluid imbalances, electrolyte abnormalities, and hypoglycemia. Careful attention to these issues can prevent significant medical complications. Treatment may require the use of intravenous fluids, glucose (after appropriate thiamine replacement), and electrolytes. Individuals with alcohol dependence frequently suffer from malnutrition. Short-term supplementation with a daily multivitamin (containing folate) is advisable if malnutrition is suspected. Refer to BOP National Formulary non-formulary use criteria for multivitamins. Hypomagnesemia may develop during alcohol withdrawal. However, routine magnesium supplementation has not been proven to be medically necessary, and is not recommended. 7. Benzodiazepine Withdrawal Diagnosis of Benzodiazepine Dependence Benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome can begin within a few hours of last drug use (especially when using short-acting drugs), but may take several weeks to resolve. Because of the high risk of delirium, seizures, and death, benzodiazepine withdrawal should always be treated. 9

13 Physiological dependence on benzodiazepine is diagnosed through a careful determination of several factors: type of medications used, length of time used, amount used, reasons for use, symptoms that occur when doses are missed or medication is discontinued, and date and amount of drug last used. Physiological benzodiazepine dependence can occur even when the medication is taken only as prescribed and may not include any significant biopsychosocial consequences. Physiological dependence develops within 3 4 weeks of regular use. Although recreational use and abuse of benzodiazepines does occur, most inmates who present with benzodiazepine dependence had been prescribed these medications previously to treat an Axis I or Axis II diagnosis. Previously treated psychiatric symptoms are likely to recur during detoxification from benzodiazepines. Therefore, a full psychological or psychiatric evaluation is indicated for inmates who have developed drug dependence while taking prescribed benzodiazepines. Subclinical signs of withdrawal (e.g., insomnia and anxiety) may take months or years to resolve and usually should be treated with a nonaddictive medication before they dominate the clinical picture. It may be necessary to delay benzodiazepine detoxification until the inmate has been on a therapeutic dose of an antidepressant or other appropriate medication for several weeks. The withdrawal syndrome from benzodiazepines is similar to that of alcohol and barbiturates, with the time course depending on the half-life of the substance used. The fact that individuals with benzodiazepine dependence often concurrently abuse alcohol further complicates their withdrawal course. Signs and Symptoms of Benzodiazepine Withdrawal Inmates with suspected benzodiazepine withdrawal should be given a targeted physical examination that includes vital signs and an evaluation of cardiovascular, neurologic, and mental health status. Laboratory evaluations should include a complete blood count, comprehensive serum chemistry panel, urine toxicology (for medical reasons, not correctional), and a pregnancy test for women. No objective measure or scoring system has been validated to assess benzodiazepine withdrawal; however, the patient s symptoms usually indicate how far the withdrawal syndrome has progressed, as outlined in Table 3 below. Do not use the CIWA-Ar for assessing benzodiazepine withdrawal. Table 3. Symptoms of Benzodiazepine Withdrawal Stage Early Withdrawal Mid Withdrawal Late Withdrawal Symptoms Increased pulse and blood pressure, anxiety, panic attacks, restlessness, and gastrointestinal upset. In addition to the above, may progress to include tremor, fever, diaphoresis, insomnia, anorexia, and diarrhea. If left untreated, a delirium may develop with hallucinations, changes in consciousness, profound agitation, autonomic instability, seizures, and death. Patients showing signs of late (severe) withdrawal should be hospitalized. 10

14 Treatment of Benzodiazepine Withdrawal The general principle of substituting a long-acting medication for a short-acting one is especially important in the treatment of benzodiazepine withdrawal. Many inmates will present with histories of chronic use of Xanax (alprazolam) or Ativan (lorazepam), both high-potency, shortacting substances. Attempts at tapering these substances for detoxification often lead to significant withdrawal symptoms and can be unsuccessful, resulting in a full-blown withdrawal syndrome. Benzodiazepines with long half lives, such as clonazepam, are generally used for benzodiazepine detoxification. However, they can accumulate and cause excessive sedation or intoxication. Careful monitoring is absolutely necessary, especially in the initial stages of changing the inmate to the longer-acting medication. Inmates experiencing benzodiazepine withdrawal should be counseled by a health care provider on the signs and symptoms of withdrawal, the anticipated treatment plan, and patient responsibilities. Educational information in Appendix 8, Patient Information Detoxification from Benzodiazepines, should be used when appropriate. Specific treatment strategies for benzodiazepine withdrawal should be determined by the condition of the individual inmate, and should be reviewed and approved by a physician. The following guidelines should be taken into consideration: Clonazepam treatment: Clonazepam is a high-potency medication with a half-life of greater than 24 hours; it is well-tolerated and easy to administer. Clonazepam can be substituted for other benzodiazepines, according to the dose equivalencies listed in Appendix 5, Benzodiazepine Dose Equivalents. It is generally begun on a three-times-a-day schedule; however, because of the long half-life, some dosing schedules for tapering may be successfully accomplished through once-daily dosing. The frequency can be adjusted according to appropriate withdrawal symptom monitoring. Individuals metabolize clonazepam at different rates; therefore, the dose equivalencies will not hold for all inmates and must be individualized according to the inmate s response. As in alcohol withdrawal, sympathetic hyperactivity is an early sign of benzodiazepine withdrawal. Control of these symptoms is accomplished with adequate dosing of the cross-tolerant medication. Monitoring: During the first three days of treatment, the inmate should be examined for withdrawal symptoms and have vital signs taken at least every 8 hours. If the inmate becomes over-sedated or intoxicated, the dose can be lowered until the inmate is more alert, so long as vital signs remain in the normal range. Stabilization may take two to three days on the new medication. After the inmate s condition has stabilized, the clonazepam can be given twice-daily, and then tapered gradually. Tapering: The tapering schedule will depend on several factors, including the setting in which the inmate is treated and the presence of co-morbid medical or psychiatric conditions. If the inmate is hospitalized, the medication can be tapered by 10% per day. Throughout the tapering schedule, inpatients should continue to be evaluated for withdrawal symptoms every 8 hours. Outpatients should not be tapered any more rapidly than by 10% every three to five days, or 25% per week. Outpatients should be evaluated daily for at least the first week, or as their condition indicates. 11

15 As the taper nears the end, it may be necessary to slow it further if anxiety or insomnia develop. These symptoms can continue for many months after detoxification has been safely completed. Referral to psychological services for supportive care, as well as stress management, sleep hygiene, and relaxation training, may be helpful both during and after the detoxification process. Psychology or psychiatry staff should closely monitor the inmate during detoxification if a co-morbid psychiatric disorder is present. Adjunctive Treatments of Benzodiazepine Withdrawal Psychological and psychiatric treatments are often necessary in the management of patients physiologically dependent on benzodiazepines. The nature of those treatments will depend on the individual s needs. Inmate education regarding the withdrawal process, expected symptoms, and possible recurrence of psychiatric symptoms is essential. Beta-blockers (e.g., propranolol) and alpha-2 adrenergic medications (e.g., clonidine) have sometimes been used to attenuate the sympathetic hyperactivity associated with benzodiazepine withdrawal. However, these drugs are not routinely recommended. They mask the very symptoms that signal an inadequate dosage of the cross-tolerant medication, and thereby place the inmate at increased risk for developing severe withdrawal. If the inmate is already on one of these medications for other medical conditions, such as hypertension, increased vigilance is necessary to prevent severe withdrawal symptoms from developing. Anti-seizure medications are generally not indicated for treating withdrawal from benzodiazepines. Carbamazepine has been shown to have some efficacy in treating benzodiazepine withdrawal, but it has many drug-drug interactions and significant side effects, and can be problematic in patients with liver disease. Inmates with underlying seizure disorders should have their seizure medication adjusted to therapeutic blood levels. Seizure medication levels should be monitored throughout the detoxification process. 8. Barbiturate Withdrawal Diagnosis and Signs/Symptoms of Barbiturate Withdrawal Barbiturates generally have short half-lives, and withdrawal symptoms can develop within a few hours of the last dose. Discontinuation of barbiturates produces a withdrawal syndrome essentially identical to that of alcohol and benzodiazepines, and can similarly result in significant morbidity and mortality if left untreated. Unlike benzodiazepines, barbiturates have a narrow therapeutic margin, above which toxicity and respiratory depression quickly develop. Although tolerance develops to the sedative and euphoric effects of barbiturates, little tolerance develops to respiratory depression. Withdrawal from barbiturates progresses as shown in Table 4 (next page). Due to the severity of barbiturate withdrawal, a low threshold should exist for admission to a local hospital if needed. Treatment of Barbiturate Withdrawal The general principles and physical assessments used in benzodiazepine withdrawal also apply to the management of barbiturate withdrawal. 12

16 Table 4. Symptoms of Barbiturate Withdrawal Stage Early Withdrawal Mid Withdrawal Late Withdrawal Symptoms Increased pulse and/or blood pressure, anxiety, panic attacks, restlessness, gastrointestinal distress. Tremor, fever, diaphoresis, insomnia, anorexia, diarrhea. Changes in consciousness, profound agitation, hallucinations, autonomic instability, seizures. Any signs or symptoms of late withdrawal should prompt hospitalization. Inmates experiencing barbiturate withdrawal should be counseled by a health care provider on the signs and symptoms of withdrawal, the anticipated treatment plan, and patient responsibilities. Educational information in Appendix 9, Patient Information Detoxification from Barbiturates should be used when appropriate. Inmates experiencing barbiturate withdrawal should always be actively medicated. Specific treatment strategies for barbiturate withdrawal should be determined by the condition of the individual inmate, and should be reviewed and approved by a physician. The following guidelines should be taken into consideration: Substitute phenobarbital for the drug of abuse in equivalent doses as per Appendix 6, Barbiturate Dose Equivalents. Administer phenobarbital on a four-times-a-day schedule. It may be necessary to establish a non-standard pill line time to meet the need for directly observed administration of phenobarbital. Stabilize the inmate on the baseline dose for three days, followed by tapering the dose by no more than 10% every three to five days. Assess the inmate s condition and vital signs at least every 8 hours during the first three days of treatment; then, at least every day for the first week; and then as the inmate s condition dictates. If this level of monitoring is not possible, consult the Regional Medical Director for advice, or consider admitting the patient to a local hospital. For outpatients, consider slowing the taper toward the end of the withdrawal schedule. Inpatients may be tapered as quickly as 10% of their drug dosage per day. Adjunctive Treatments for Barbiturate Withdrawal Symptoms of anxiety and insomnia may continue for months after the safe completion of detoxification. Inmate education is paramount. Referral to psychology services for stress management, relaxation training, and sleep hygiene may be indicated for certain inmates. Beta-blockers and clonidine will mask withdrawal symptoms and complicate management. As such, these drugs are not routinely recommended in adjunctive treatment for barbiturate withdrawal. Inmates with seizure disorders should have anti-seizure medications maintained in the therapeutic range and should have blood levels checked frequently throughout the detoxification process. 13

17 9. Opiate Withdrawal Diagnosis of Opiate Dependence The diagnosis of opiate dependence is made through a careful patient history and physical examination. The history should focus in part on the following information: Types of drugs used, route of use, length of time drugs have been used, symptoms when drugs have been stopped or decreased, and date and amount of last drug use. Review of risk factors, symptoms, and previous testing for bloodborne pathogens: hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Determination of past medical history and review of symptoms for medical conditions associated with chronic opiate use such as malnutrition, tuberculosis infection and disease, trauma, skin infections, endocarditis, and sexually transmitted diseases. The physical examination should include, in part, an evaluation of the inmate s vital signs and cardiopulmonary status for evidence of fever, heart murmur, or hemodynamic instability. In addition, there should be a focused examination of the skin for signs of scarring, atrophy, infection, and the stigmata of endocarditis. The laboratory evaluation should include a complete blood count, comprehensive serum chemistry panel, urine toxicology, and a pregnancy test in women. Other studies such as hepatitis serologies, HIV testing, electrocardiogram, chest x-ray, and screening for sexually transmitted diseases could be conducted, depending on the individual historical findings and physical examination. Medical detoxification is considered the standard of care for individuals with opiate dependence. Opiate withdrawal is rarely dangerous except in medically debilitated individuals and pregnant women. Pregnant women taking opiates should be treated with methadone or maintained on methadone, since detoxification increases the risk of miscarriage and premature labor. Symptoms of withdrawal from short-acting opiates such as heroin can develop a few hours after the last use, peak within hours, and subside over 5 10 days. Longer-acting opiates such as methadone produce a more protracted withdrawal syndrome, beginning in hours, peaking in 72 hours, and subsiding over 1 3 weeks. Early signs of opiate withdrawal include: rhinorrhea, diaphoresis, lacrimation, yawning, dilated pupils, and increased temperature. Later signs include: anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, tenesmus, goose flesh, weakness, increased blood pressure and pulse, agitation, restlessness, and severe muscle and bone pain. 14

18 Treatment of Opiate Withdrawal Patients with opiate dependence often express significant fear and anticipatory anxiety regarding detoxification. Inmates experiencing opiate withdrawal should be counseled by a health care provider on the signs and symptoms of withdrawal, the anticipated treatment plan, and patient responsibilities. Educational information in Appendix 10, Patient Information Detoxification from Opiates (Narcotics) should be used when appropriate. Treatment is aimed at reducing the signs and symptoms of withdrawal, and may or may not include the use of a substitute narcotic such as methadone. Specific treatment should always be determined by the condition of the individual inmate, and should be reviewed and approved by a physician. The following guidelines should be taken into consideration: Methadone treatment: The federal Narcotic Addict Treatment Act of 1974 restricts the use of methadone in the treatment of opiate dependence to facilities that are appropriately licensed as a Narcotic Treatment Program for maintenance or detoxification with methadone. Methadone can be provided without an institutional license for up to three days while arranging for an appropriate referral of the patient to a licensed facility. This three-day allowance cannot be renewed or extended. In accordance with the above requirements, methadone can be substituted for any other opiate. Because methadone has a long half-life, accumulation can occur over the first few days while a steady state is reached, which can result in an iatrogenic overdose and death due to respiratory depression. Methadone used for opiate detoxification should ordinarily be administered in accordance with the following guidelines: Methadone can be given in doses of 5 10 mgs orally, every 4 6 hours as needed to control objective signs of withdrawal. Frequent monitoring for respiratory depression and over-sedation is necessary until the inmate is stabilized. Once signs of withdrawal are controlled, the inmate is stabilized over two to three days, and the methadone is then tapered at a rate of 10% per day. Clonidine is usually given in conjunction with the methadone to minimize withdrawal symptoms. Clonidine treatment: Clonidine is an acceptable alternative for opiate detoxification and should be considered if the institution does not have a methadone license or when otherwise medically indicated. Clonidine is usually used together with other medications for symptomatic relief during detoxification. Clonidine will suppress many of the symptoms of withdrawal, including sympathetic hyperactivity, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, cramps, and sweating; however, it has no effect on muscle or bone pain, insomnia, or severe drug craving. Clonidine is ordinarily administered in accordance with the following guidelines: Clonidine can cause hypotension and somnolence (increasing risk of injury), and is fatal in overdose. Clonidine can be given in doses of mg orally, three to four times daily. Directly observed therapy (pill line) is strongly encouraged. Crushing of the tablets should also be considered. Clonidine patches can be utilized in mild withdrawal cases and are left on for seven days. 15

19 Vital signs should be carefully monitored before each dose of clonidine. Withhold clonidine if systolic BP drops below 90 mm Hg or if bradycardia develops. Maintain baseline clonidine dosing for two to three days; then, taper off over five to ten days. Buprenorphine treatment: Buprenorphine is a mixed agonist-antagonist agent. It can be used for maintenance therapy for opioid dependent patients, or for helping opioid dependent patients achieve abstinence from opioids. Detoxification of inmates who have been using buprenorphine as maintenance therapy can be accomplished in an outpatient setting over several days. Tapering the patient will be accomplished by other opioid agents. A special license is required to prescribe buprenorphine. This medication is not routinely used in the BOP. Refer to the National BOP Formulary for current non-formulary use criteria for buprenorphine. Adjunctive Treatments for Opiate Withdrawal Symptomatic treatment for opiate withdrawal should be provided over five to ten days, using standard doses of the following medications unless otherwise contraindicated: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents are used for pain and fever. Antidiarrheals and anti-emetics are used to control gastrointestinal symptoms. Benzodiazepines are used for insomnia and restlessness. Buspirone has shown efficacy in reducing anxiety and symptoms associated with opioid withdrawal, and may be prescribed as needed on a case-by-case basis. Many inmates with opiate dependence have experienced multiple episodes of withdrawal prior to incarceration, and are typically highly anxious during opiate withdrawal, even when symptoms are well-controlled. Psychological support is often necessary to help ease these anxieties. The inmate s mental health status should be monitored on an ongoing basis during withdrawal. Referrals to psychology and psychiatry staff should be initiated as warranted. 10. Cocaine/Stimulants Inmates with a dependency on cocaine or other stimulants generally do not require treatment in an inpatient setting. The cessation of this substance does not always cause specific withdrawal symptoms. However, symptoms may be severe enough to require clinical intervention. For most inmates who use cocaine or other stimulants, medications are not ordinarily indicated as an initial treatment for withdrawal or dependence, as none have shown efficacy. Inmates are treated symptomatically. 11. Inhalants Inhalants are commonly used to obtain a quick high. Substances such as paint thinner, cleaners, and glue can be breathed in through the nose a process known as huffing. The various symptoms associated with huffing include dizziness, impaired coordination, slurred speech, unsteady gait, lethargy, blurred vision, and even stupor or coma. There are no general lab tests for patients suspected of inhaling a substance. Treatment is generally supportive, but in the case of an overdose, emergency support may be necessary, as well as increased observation to monitor vital signs. 16