BIOLOGY. Hormones and the Endocrine System CAMPBELL. Reece Urry Cain Wasserman Minorsky Jackson

Transcription

1 CAMPBELL BIOLOGY TENTH EDITION Reece Urry Cain Wasserman Minorsky Jackson 45 Hormones and the Endocrine System Lecture Presentation by Nicole Tunbridge and Kathleen Fitzpatrick

2 The Body s Long-Distance Regulators Animal hormones are chemical signals that are secreted into the circulatory system and communicate regulatory messages within the body Hormones reach all parts of the body, but only target cells have receptors for that hormone

3 Figure 45.1

4 Figure 45.1a Male elephant seals sparring

5 Chemical signaling by hormones is the function of the endocrine system The nervous system is a network of specialized cells neurons that transmit signals along dedicated pathways The nervous and endocrine systems often overlap in function

6 Concept 45.1: Hormones and other signaling molecules bind to target receptors, triggering specific response pathways Animals use chemical signals to communicate in diverse ways

7 Intercellular Communication The ways that signals are transmitted between animal cells are classified by two criteria The type of secreting cell The route taken by the signal in reaching its target

8 Figure 45.2 Blood vessel RESPONSE (a) Endocrine signaling Synapse Neuron RESPONSE (d) Synaptic signaling RESPONSE (b) Paracrine signaling Neurosecretory cell RESPONSE Blood vessel RESPONSE (c) Autocrine signaling (e) Neuroendocrine signaling

9 Figure 45.2a Blood vessel RESPONSE (a) Endocrine signaling RESPONSE (b) Paracrine signaling RESPONSE (c) Autocrine signaling

10 Figure 45.2b Synapse Neuron RESPONSE (d) Synaptic signaling Neurosecretory cell Blood vessel RESPONSE (e) Neuroendocrine signaling

11 Endocrine Signaling Hormones secreted into extracellular fluids by endocrine cells reach their targets via the bloodstream Endocrine signaling maintains homeostasis, mediates responses to stimuli, regulates growth and development

12 Paracrine and Autocrine Signaling Local regulators are molecules that act over short distances, reaching target cells solely by diffusion In paracrine signaling, the target cells lie near the secreting cells In autocrine signaling, the target cell is also the secreting cell

13 Paracrine and autocrine signaling play roles in processes such as blood pressure regulation, nervous system function, and reproduction Local regulators that mediate such signaling include the prostaglandins Prostaglandins function in reproduction, the immune system, and blood clotting

14 Synaptic and Neuroendocrine Signaling In synaptic signaling, neurons form specialized junctions with target cells, called synapses At synapses, neurons secrete molecules called neurotransmitters that diffuse short distances and bind to receptors on target cells In neuroendocrine signaling, specialized neurosecretory cells secrete molecules called neurohormones that travel to target cells via the bloodstream

15 Signaling by Pheromones Members of an animal species sometimes communicate with pheromones, chemicals that are released into the environment Pheromones serve many functions, including marking trails leading to food, defining territories, warning of predators, and attracting potential mates

16 Figure 45.3

17 Chemical Classes of Local Regulators and Hormones Molecules used in intercellular signaling vary substantially in size and chemical properties

18 Classes of Local Regulators Local regulators such as the prostaglandins are modified fatty acids Others are polypeptides and some are gases Nitric oxide (NO) is a gas that functions in the body as both a local regulator and a neurotransmitter When the level of oxygen in blood falls, NO activates an enzyme that results in vasodilation, increasing blood flow to tissues

19 Classes of Hormones Hormones fall into three major classes: polypeptides, steroids, and amines Polypeptides and amines are water-soluble whereas steroid hormones and other largely nonpolar hormones are lipid-soluble

20 Figure 45.4 Water-soluble (hydrophilic) Lipid-soluble (hydrophobic) Polypeptides Steroids 0.8 nm Insulin Cortisol Amines Epinephrine Thyroxine

21 Cellular Response Pathways Water-soluble hormones are secreted by exocytosis, travel freely in the bloodstream, and bind to cell-surface receptors Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse across cell membranes, travel in the bloodstream bound to transport proteins, and diffuse through the membrane of target cells They bind to receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus of the target cells

22 Figure 45.5 (a) Water-soluble hormone; receptor in plasma membrane SECRETORY CELL (b) Lipid-soluble hormone; receptor in nucleus or cytoplasm SECRETORY CELL Watersoluble hormone Lipidsoluble hormone Blood vessel Receptor protein TARGET CELL OR Blood vessel Transport protein TARGET CELL Receptor protein Cytoplasmic response Gene regulation Cytoplasmic response Gene regulation NUCLEUS NUCLEUS

23 Figure 45.5a (a) Water-soluble hormone; receptor in plasma membrane SECRETORY CELL (b) Lipid-soluble hormone; receptor in nucleus or cytoplasm SECRETORY CELL Watersoluble hormone Lipidsoluble hormone Blood vessel Receptor protein TARGET CELL Blood vessel Transport protein TARGET CELL

24 Figure 45.5b (a) Water-soluble hormone; receptor in plasma membrane (b) Lipid-soluble hormone; receptor in nucleus or cytoplasm Receptor protein TARGET CELL OR TARGET CELL Receptor protein Cytoplasmic response Gene regulation Cytoplasmic response Gene regulation NUCLEUS NUCLEUS

25 Pathway for Water-Soluble Hormones Binding of a hormone to its receptor initiates a signal transduction pathway leading to responses in the cytoskeleton, enzyme activation, or a change in gene expression

26 The hormone epinephrine has multiple effects in mediating the body s response to short-term stress Epinephrine binds to receptors on the plasma membrane of liver cells This triggers the release of messenger molecules that activate enzymes and result in the release of glucose into the bloodstream

27 Figure 45.6 EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Hormone (epinephrine) G protein Adenylyl cyclase G protein-coupled receptor GTP Inhibition of glycogen synthesis Promotion of glycogen breakdown ATP Protein kinase A camp Second messenger CYTOPLASM

28 Animation: Water-Soluble Hormone

29 Pathway for Lipid-Soluble Hormones The response to a lipid-soluble hormone is usually a change in gene expression When a steroid hormone binds to its cytosolic receptor, a hormone-receptor complex forms that moves into the nucleus There, the receptor part of the complex acts as a transcriptional regulator of specific target genes

30 Figure 45.7 Hormone (estradiol) EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Estradiol receptor NUCLEUS Plasma membrane Hormone-receptor complex CYTOPLASM DNA mrna for vitellogenin Vitellogenin

31 Animation: Lipid-Soluble Hormone

32 Multiple Effects of Hormones The same hormone may have different effects on target cells that have Different receptors for the hormone Different signal transduction pathways For example, the hormone epinephrine can increase blood flow to major skeletal muscles, but decrease blood flow to the digestive tract

33 Figure 45.8 Same receptors but different intracellular proteins (not shown) Different receptors (a) Liver cell Epinephrine β receptor Glycogen deposits (b) Smooth muscle cell in wall of blood vessel that supplies skeletal muscle Epinephrine β receptor (c) Smooth muscle cell in wall of blood vessel that supplies intestines Epinephrine α receptor Glucose Glycogen breaks down and glucose is released from cell. Blood glucose level increases. Cell relaxes. Blood vessel dilates, increasing flow to skeletal muscle. Cell contracts. Blood vessel constricts, decreasing flow to intestines.

34 Figure 45.8a (a) Liver cell Epinephrine β receptor Glycogen deposits (b) Smooth muscle cell in wall of blood vessel that supplies skeletal muscle Epinephrine β receptor (c) Smooth muscle cell in wall of blood vessel that supplies intestines Epinephrine α receptor Glucose Glycogen breaks down and glucose is released from cell. Blood glucose level increases. Cell relaxes. Blood vessel dilates, increasing flow to skeletal muscle. Cell contracts. Blood vessel constricts, decreasing flow to intestines.

35 Endocrine Tissues and Organs Endocrine cells are often grouped in ductless organs called endocrine glands, such as the thyroid and parathyroid glands, testes, and ovaries In contrast, exocrine glands, such as salivary glands have ducts to carry secreted substances onto body surfaces or into body cavities

36 Figure 45.9

37 Figure 45.9a Pineal gland Hypothalamus Pituitary gland Thyroid gland Parathyroid glands Adrenal glands Pancreas Ovaries (female) Testes (male)

38 Figure 45.9b

39 Figure 45.9c

40 Concept 45.2: Feedback regulation and coordination with the nervous system are common in endocrine signaling Hormones are assembled into regulatory pathways

41 Simple Hormone Pathways Hormones are released from an endocrine cell, travel through the bloodstream, and interact with specific receptors within a target cell to cause a physiological response

42 Figure Simple endocrine pathway STIMULUS Endocrine cell Example: secretin signaling Low ph in duodenum S cells of duodenum Negative feedback Hormone Secretin ( ) Target cells Pancreatic cells RESPONSE Bicarbonate release

43 BioFlix: Homeostasis: Regulating Blood Sugar

44 For example, the release of acidic contents of the stomach into the duodenum stimulates endocrine cells there to secrete secretin This causes target cells in the pancreas, a gland behind the stomach, to raise the ph in the duodenum

45 In a simple neuroendocrine pathway, the stimulus is received by a sensory neuron, which stimulates a neurosecretory cell The neurosecretory cell secretes a neurohormone, which enters the bloodstream and travels to target cells

46 For example the suckling of an infant stimulates signals in the nervous systems that reach the hypothalamus Nerve impulses from the hypothalamus trigger the release of oxytocin, from the posterior pituitary This causes the mammary glands to secrete milk

47 Figure Simple neuroendocrine pathway STIMULUS Example: oxytocin signaling Suckling Hypothalamus/ posterior pituitary Sensory neuron Positive feedback Neurosecretory cell Neurohormone Oxytocin ( ) Target cells Smooth muscle in mammary glands RESPONSE Milk release

48 Feedback Regulation A negative feedback loop inhibits a response by reducing the initial stimulus, thus preventing excessive pathway activity Positive feedback reinforces a stimulus to produce an even greater response For example, in mammals oxytocin causes the release of milk, causing greater suckling by offspring, which stimulates the release of more oxytocin

49 Coordination of Endocrine and Nervous Systems In a wide range of animals, endocrine organs in the brain integrate function of the endocrine system with that of the nervous system

50 Invertebrates The endocrine pathway that controls the molting of larva originates in the larval brain where neurosecretory cells produce PTTH In the prothoracic gland, PTTH directs the release of ecdysteroid Bursts of ecdysteroid trigger each successive molt as well as metamorphosis Metamorphosis is not triggered until the level of another hormone, JH (juvenile hormone), drops

51 Figure Brain Prothoracic gland PTTH Neurosecretory cells Corpora cardiaca Corpora allata High JH Ecdysteroid EARLY LARVA

52 Figure Brain Prothoracic gland PTTH Neurosecretory cells Corpora cardiaca Corpora allata High JH Ecdysteroid EARLY LARVA LATER LARVA

53 Figure Brain Prothoracic gland PTTH Neurosecretory cells Corpora cardiaca Corpora allata High JH Ecdysteroid Low JH EARLY LARVA LATER LARVA PUPA

54 Figure Brain Prothoracic gland PTTH Neurosecretory cells Corpora cardiaca Corpora allata High JH Ecdysteroid Low JH EARLY LARVA LATER LARVA PUPA ADULT

55 Vertebrates The hypothalamus receives information from the nervous system and initiates responses through the endocrine system Attached to the hypothalamus is the pituitary gland, composed of the posterior pituitary and anterior pituitary

56 The posterior pituitary stores and secretes hormones that are made in the hypothalamus The anterior pituitary makes and releases hormones under regulation of the hypothalamus

57 Figure Pineal gland Cerebellum Spinal cord Cerebrum Thalamus Hypothalamus Pituitary gland Posterior pituitary Hypothalamus Anterior pituitary

58 Posterior Pituitary Hormones Neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus synthesize the two posterior pituitary hormones Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) regulates physiology and behavior Oxytocin regulates milk secretion by the mammary glands

59 Figure Hypothalamus Neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus Neurohormone Axons Posterior pituitary Anterior pituitary HORMONE ADH Oxytocin TARGET Kidney tubules Mammary glands, uterine muscles

60 Anterior Pituitary Hormones Hormone production in the anterior pituitary is controlled by releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones secreted by the hypothalamus For example, prolactin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete prolactin (PRL), which has a role in milk production

61 Figure Neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus HORMONE TARGET Hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones Posterior pituitary Portal vessels Endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary Anterior pituitary hormones FSH and LH TSH ACTH Prolactin MSH GH Testes or ovaries Thyroid Adrenal cortex Mammary glands Melanocytes Liver, bones, other tissues Tropic effects only Nontropic effects only Tropic and nontropic effects

62 Figure 45.15a Neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus Hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones Posterior pituitary Portal vessels Endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary Anterior pituitary hormones

63 Figure 45.15b FSH and LH TSH ACTH Testes or ovaries Thyroid Tropic effects only Adrenal cortex Prolactin MSH GH Mammary glands Melanocytes Liver, bones, other tissues Nontropic effects only Tropic and nontropic effects

64 Sets of hormones from the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and a target endocrine gland are often organized into a hormone cascade pathway The anterior pituitary hormones in these pathways are called tropic hormones

65 Thyroid Regulation: A Hormone Cascade Pathway In humans and other mammals, thyroid hormone regulates many functions If thyroid hormone level drops in the blood, the hypothalamus secretes thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) causing the anterior pituitary to secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) TSH stimulates release of thyroid hormone by the thyroid gland

66 Figure Thyroid hormone blocks TRH release and TSH release preventing overproduction of thyroid hormone. Negative feedback STIMULUS Sensory neuron Hypothalamus TSH Neurosecretory cell TRH RESPONSE Anterior pituitary Circulation throughout body via blood Thyroid gland Thyroid hormone Circulation throughout body via blood 5 Thyroid hormone levels drop. The hypothalamus secretes TRH into the blood. Portal vessels carry TRH to anterior pituitary. TRH causes anterior pituitary to secrete TSH. TSH stimulates endocrine cells in thyroid gland to secrete T 3 and T 4. Thyroid hormone levels return to normal range.

67 Figure 45.16a End product of cascade, thyroid hormone, creates negative feedback. STIMULUS Sensory neuron Hypothalamus TSH Neurosecretory cell TRH Anterior pituitary Thyroid hormone levels drop. The hypothalamus secretes TRH into the blood. Portal vessels carry TRH to anterior pituitary. TRH causes anterior pituitary to secrete TSH.

68 Figure 45.16b TSH 6 Thyroid hormone blocks TRH release and TSH release preventing overproduction of thyroid hormone. RESPONSE TSH circulation throughout body via blood Thyroid gland Thyroid hormone 4 Circulation throughout body via blood 5 TSH stimulates endocrine cells in thyroid gland to secrete T 3 and T 4. Thyroid hormone levels return to normal range.

69 Disorders of Thyroid Function and Regulation Hypothyroidism, too little thyroid function, can produce symptoms such as Weight gain, lethargy, cold intolerance Hyperthyroidism, excessive production of thyroid hormone, can lead to High temperature, sweating, weight loss, irritability, and high blood pressure Malnutrition can alter thyroid function

70 Graves disease, a form of hyperthyroidism caused by autoimmunity, is typified by protruding eyes Thyroid hormone refers to a pair of hormones Triiodothyronin (T 3 ), with three iodine atoms Thyroxine (T 4 ), with four iodine atoms Insufficient dietary iodine leads to an enlarged thyroid gland, called a goiter

71 Figure Low level of iodine uptake High level of iodine uptake

72 Hormonal Regulation of Growth Growth hormone (GH) is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and has tropic and nontropic effects It promotes growth directly and has diverse metabolic effects It stimulates production of growth factors An excess of GH can cause gigantism, while a lack of GH can cause dwarfism

73 Figure 45.18

74 Concept 45.3: Endocrine glands respond to diverse stimuli in regulating homeostasis, development, and behavior Endocrine signaling regulates homeostasis, development, and behavior

75 Parathyroid Hormone and Vitamin D: Control of Blood Calcium Two antagonistic hormones regulate the homeostasis of calcium (Ca 2+ ) in the blood of mammals Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is released by the parathyroid glands Calcitonin is released by the thyroid gland

76 Figure Blood Ca 2+ level rises. NORMAL BLOOD Ca 2+ LEVEL (about 10 mg/100 ml) Active vitamin D increases Ca 2+. Blood Ca 2+ level falls. PTH stimulates Ca 2+ uptake and promotes activation of vitamin D. PTH stimulates Ca 2+ release. PTH Parathyroid glands release PTH.

77 PTH increases the level of blood Ca 2+ It releases Ca 2+ from bone and stimulates reabsorption of Ca 2+ in the kidneys It also has an indirect effect, stimulating the kidneys to activate vitamin D, which promotes intestinal uptake of Ca 2+ from food Calcitonin decreases the level of blood Ca 2+ It stimulates Ca 2+ deposition in bones and secretion by kidneys

78 Adrenal Hormones: Response to Stress The adrenal glands are associated with the kidneys Each adrenal gland actually consists of two glands: the adrenal medulla (inner portion) and adrenal cortex (outer portion)

79 Catecholamines from the Adrenal Medulla The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) These hormones are members of a class of compounds called catecholamines They are secreted in response to stress-activated impulses from the nervous system They mediate various fight-or-flight responses

80 Figure (a) Short-term stress response and the adrenal medulla (b) Long-term stress response and the adrenal cortex Nerve impulses Spinal cord (cross section) Neuron Stress Releasing hormone Hypothalamus Anterior pituitary Adrenal medulla Neuron ACTH Blood vessel Adrenal gland Kidney Adrenal cortex Effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine: Glycogen broken down to glucose; increased blood glucose Increased blood pressure Increased breathing rate Increased metabolic rate Change in blood flow patterns, leading to increased alertness and decreased digestive, excretory, and reproductive system activity Effects of mineralocorticoids: Retention of sodium ions and water by kidneys Increased blood volume and blood pressure Effects of glucocorticoids: Proteins and fats broken down and converted to glucose, leading to increased blood glucose Partial suppression of immune system

81 Figure 45.20a (a) Short-term stress response (b) Long-term stress response Nerve Spinal impulses cord (cross section) Neuron Stress Releasing hormone Hypothalamus Anterior pituitary Adrenal medulla Neuron ACTH Blood vessel Secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine Adrenal gland Kidney Adrenal cortex Secretion of mineraloand glucocorticoids

82 Epinephrine and norepinephrine Trigger the release of glucose and fatty acids into the blood Increase oxygen delivery to body cells Direct blood toward heart, brain, and skeletal muscles and away from skin, digestive system, and kidneys

83 Figure 45.20b (a) Short-term stress response and the adrenal medulla Effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine: Glycogen broken down to glucose; increased blood glucose Increased blood pressure Increased breathing rate Increased metabolic rate Change in blood flow patterns, leading to increased alertness and decreased digestive, excretory, and reproductive system activity

84 Steroid Hormones from the Adrenal Cortex The adrenal cortex reacts to endocrine signals It releases a family of steroids called corticosteroids in response to stress These hormones are triggered by a hormone cascade pathway via the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary Humans produce two types of corticosteroids: glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids

85 Glucocorticoids, such as cortisol, influence glucose metabolism and the immune system Mineralocorticoids, such as aldosterone, affect salt and water balance

86 Figure 45.20c (b) Long-term stress response and the adrenal cortex Effects of mineralocorticoids: Retention of sodium ions and water by kidneys Increased blood volume and blood pressure Effects of glucocorticoids: Proteins and fats broken down and converted to glucose, leading to increased blood glucose Partial suppression of immune system

87 Sex Hormones The gonads, testes and ovaries, produce most of the sex hormones: androgens, estrogens, and progestins All three sex hormones are found in both males and females, but in significantly different proportions

88 The testes primarily synthesize androgens, mainly testosterone, which stimulate development and maintenance of the male reproductive system Testosterone causes an increase in muscle and bone mass and is often taken as a supplement to cause muscle growth, which carries health risks

89 Figure Bipotential gonad Male duct (Wolffian) Female duct (Müllerian) Embryo (XY or XX) Testosterone AMH Absence of male hormones Testis Ovary Vas deferens Seminal vesicle Bladder Uterus Bladder Oviduct Male (XY) fetus Female (XX) fetus

90 Estrogens, most importantly estradiol, are responsible for maintenance of the female reproductive system and the development of female secondary sex characteristics In mammals, progestins, which include progesterone, are primarily involved in preparing and maintaining the uterus Synthesis of the sex hormones is controlled by follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone from the anterior pituitary

91 Endocrine Disruptors Between 1938 and 1971 some pregnant women at risk for complications were prescribed a synthetic estrogen called diethylstilbestrol (DES) Daughters of women treated with DES are at higher risk for reproductive abnormalities, including miscarriage, structural changes, and cervical and vaginal cancers

92 DES is an endocrine disruptor, a molecule that interrupts the normal function of a hormone pathway, in this case, that of estrogen

93 Hormones and Biological Rhythms The pineal gland, located in the brain, secretes melatonin Primary functions of melatonin appear to relate to biological rhythms associated with reproduction and with daily activity levels The release of melatonin by the pineal gland is controlled by a group of neurons in the hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

94 Evolution of Hormone Function Over the course of evolution the functions of particular hormones have diverged For example, thyroid hormone plays a role in metabolism across many lineages, but in frogs has taken on a unique function: stimulating the resorption of the tadpole tail during metamorphosis Prolactin also has a broad range of activities in vertebrates

95 Figure Adult frog Tadpole

96 Figure 45.22a Tadpole

97 Figure 45.22b Adult frog

98 Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) regulates skin color in amphibians, fish, and reptiles by controlling pigment distribution in melanocytes In mammals, MSH plays roles in hunger and metabolism in addition to coloration

99 Figure 45.UN01

100 Figure 45.UN02 Mean Plasma ACTH Level (pg/ml) Sleep Protocol Expected Wake Time Actual Wake Time 1:00 a.m. 6:00 a.m. in the 30 Minutes Post-waking Short Long Surprise 6:00 a.m. 6:00 a.m. 9:00 a.m. 9:00 a.m. 9:00 a.m. 6:00 a.m

101 Figure 45.UN03 Water-soluble hormone Receptor protein TARGET CELL OR Lipidsoluble hormone TARGET CELL Receptor protein Cytoplasmic response Gene regulation Cytoplasmic response Gene regulation NUCLEUS NUCLEUS

102 Figure 45.UN04 Cortisol level in blood Normal Patient X Drug administered None Dexamethasone

103 Figure 45.UN05