Hypothalamus. Small, central, & essential.
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1 Hypothalamus Small, central, & essential.
2 Summary: You can t live without a hypothalamus. Located at the junction between the brain stem and the forebrain Medial hypothalamus: interface between the brain and the endocrine system Blood volume Metabolic rate Lactation Stress Hypothalamus: major interface between the limbic system & the autonomic nervous system Eating Thermoregulation Blood pressure Hypothalamus also sets our biological clock Sleep/wakefulness
3 Hypothalamus: anatomy
4 Hypothalamus: anatomy Pituitary gland
5 Hypothalamus: anatomy Anterior commissure Hypothalamic sulcus Lamina terminalis Optic chiasm Mammillary bodies Pituitary gland
6 Hypothalamus: anatomy
7 Fornix: medial vs. lateral hypothalamus Medial hypothalamus Fornix Lateral hypothalamus Optic tract
8 Inputs & outputs Mammillothalamic tract Fornix Medial forebrain bundle
9 Hypothalamus: anatomy
10 Hypothalamus as an endocrine organ Hypothalamus directly projects to posterior pituitary Vasopressin Oxytocin Cells in supraoptic n. & paraventricular n. Axons release these hormones into blood in posterior pituitary dept/sciencelrc/wissmann_site/pituitary.htm
11 Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone; ADH) Increases blood volume Decreases urine production by increasing reabsorption of water into bloodstream Increases blood pressure (--constricts arterioles) Made by magnocellular (i.e. big) neurons in supraoptic n. (not suprachiasmatic n. or preoptic n.) and also paraventricular n. Cells sense osmolarity (i.e. concentration of salt in blood): increased salt increased firing Release inhibited by ethanol
12 Oxytocin Reproduction: acts on uterus & breasts Uterine contraction during birth Milk ejection reflex Love hormone? More social bonding & empathy within one s group Increases trust; decreases fear; increases generosity Promotes monogamous behavior in males Magnocellular neurons in supraoptic n. and also paraventricular n.
13 Hypothalamus as an endocrine organ Indirect connection to anterior pituitary Hormone in neurons in arcuate n. & paraventricular n. (ventromedial hypothalamus) Hormones released into hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system Blood carries hormones to pituitary modulate release of pituitary hormones Median eminence dept/sciencelrc/wissmann_site/pituitary.htm
14 --What is a portal circulation? Normal circulation passes through only one organ: arteries arterioles capillaries in organ venules veins Portal circulation goes through two organs: arteries arterioles capillaries in organ #1 portal veins capillaries in organ #2 venules veins
15 Hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system arteries arterioles ventral hypothalamus (capillaries of median eminence) portal veins (pituitary stalk) capillaries of anterior pituitary venules veins
16 Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH): release into portal system Indirect connection to anterior pituitary Portal circulation carries TRH to anterior pituitary Causes release of thyroidstimulating hormone Thyroid stimulating hormone general circulation to thyroid Causes release of thyroid hormone sets basal metabolic rate Median eminence dept/sciencelrc/wissmann_site/pituitary.htm
17 Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) Portal circulation to pituitary Causes release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) in response to stress ACTH general circulation to adrenal cortex Causes release of cortisol Median eminence dept/sciencelrc/wissmann_site/pituitary.htm
18 Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) Released from median eminence into portal circulation anterior pituitary Promotes release of growth hormone from pituitary Growth hormone liver release of insulin-like growth factor 1 cell proliferation Median eminence dept/sciencelrc/wissmann_site/pituitary.htm
19 Somatostatin Released from median eminence; portal circulation to anterior pituitary Inhibits release of growth hormone from pituitary Opposes action of growth hormone-releasing hormone Median eminence dept/sciencelrc/wissmann_site/pituitary.htm
20 Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GRH) Released into portal circulation pituitary Promotes release of folliclestimulating hormone (FSH) & Median eminence lutenizing hormone (LH) into general circulation FSH maturation of reproductive cells (eggs; sperm) LH females: ovulation males: synthesis of testosterone dept/sciencelrc/wissmann_site/pituitary.htm
21 Control of prolactin by dopamine Prolactin = PITUITARY HORMONE Prolactin increased by elevated levels of estrogen and progesterone (e.g., in pregnancy) Prolactin promotes lactation Increased breast mass Dopamine portal circulation inhibition of prolactin release i.e. acts as prolactin-inhibitory hormone Median eminence dept/sciencelrc/wissmann_site/pituitary.htm
22 Regulation of endocrine function Feedback control of hormone synthesis: Hormones may directly inhibit the synthesis or release of hypothalamic releasing hormones Thyroid hormone decreases TRH Cortisol decreases ACTH Etc.
23 Hypothalamus vs. pituitary: Keeping hormones straight Pituitary hormones Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) Growth hormone (GH) Etc. Hypothalamic hormones: hyphenated (mostly) Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GH-RH) Exception: somatostatin
24 Hypothalamus & the autonomic nervous system Classical autonomic effects Blood pressure Thermoregulation Urination Autonomic effects not mediated directly through sympathetic or parasympathetic nervous systems Feeding Circadian rhythms
25 Blood pressure Paraventricular n. of hypothalamus reduces long-term increases in BP Dorsomedial n. of hypothalamus increases BP and heart rate to stress: classic sympathetic effects
26 Thermoregulation Preoptic nucleus of hypothalamus 20% of preoptic neurons activated by warmth Directly sensitive Also receive input from skin Firing reduces body heat Activates vasodilation Inhibits vasoconstriction Ultimately activates sweating
27 Thermoregulation Exposure to cold activation by hypothalamus of descending excitatory systems Skeletal muscle activity heat : shivering Activation of sympathetic nervous system brown adipose tissue (brown fat) heat Non-shivering thermogenesis
28 Feeding Stimulation of lateral hypothalamus eating Lesions aphagia (lack of eating) Stimulation of medial hypothalamus decreased eating Lesions hyperphagia (excessive eating)
29 Feeding Arcuate nucleus of hypothalamus responds to caloric intake Receives input from visceral afferents Responds to glucose; fatty acids Also responds to hormones Leptin Ghrelin Orexin
30 Eating Arcuate nucleus: receptors for leptin, ghrelin, & orexin Leptin: hormone secreted by white fat cells Leptin levels = measure of stored energy Inhibits hunger Mutations obese mice & humans + hyperphagia Ghrelin: secreted by stomach when empty Secretion increases with time after meal Stomach filling inhibits secretion Orexin: promotes food intake but may be effect of general arousal
31 Circadian rhythms (Latin, approximately a day ) Regulation of our daily rhythm Eating Sleeping Defecating Periods of activity Suprachiasmatic n.
32 Circadian pattern generation Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) SMALL: only 10,000 neurons master clock SCN Optic chiasm
33 Intrinsic circadian rhythm runs slow Laboratory experiment; 20- y.o. male With no light cues, 25.3 hr sleep cycle Similar intrinsic rhythm also seen in SCN tissue slices Day Number Timing of sleep (hours) Slept when desired Awoken every 24 h Czeisler CA; Sleep. 4(1):1-21, 1981.
34 Setting the circadian beat Light sets the circadian clock Input from eyes: retino-hypothalamic pathway Light-sensitive retinal ganglion neurons SCN expresses melatonin receptors Melatonin is secreted by pineal Secretion increases at night
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