FRUIT AND VEGETABLE CONSUMPTION OF DIVISION I COLLEGIATE FOOTBALL AND VOLLEYBALL PLAYERS PRE- AND POST-DEREGULATION OF SNACKS BY THE NCAA

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1 University of Kentucky UKnowledge Theses and Dissertations--Dietetics and Human Nutrition Dietetics and Human Nutrition 2015 FRUIT AND VEGETABLE CONSUMPTION OF DIVISION I COLLEGIATE FOOTBALL AND VOLLEYBALL PLAYERS PRE- AND POST-DEREGULATION OF SNACKS BY THE NCAA Emily Ludwig University of Kentucky, eqludwig@gmail.com Click here to let us know how access to this document benefits you. Recommended Citation Ludwig, Emily, "FRUIT AND VEGETABLE CONSUMPTION OF DIVISION I COLLEGIATE FOOTBALL AND VOLLEYBALL PLAYERS PRE- AND POST-DEREGULATION OF SNACKS BY THE NCAA" 2015). Theses and Dissertations--Dietetics and Human Nutrition This Master's Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Dietetics and Human Nutrition at UKnowledge. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations--Dietetics and Human Nutrition by an authorized administrator of UKnowledge. For more information, please contact UKnowledge@lsv.uky.edu.

2 STUDENT AGREEMENT: I represent that my thesis or dissertation and abstract are my original work. Proper attribution has been given to all outside sources. I understand that I am solely responsible for obtaining any needed copyright permissions. I have obtained needed written permission statements) from the owners) of each thirdparty copyrighted matter to be included in my work, allowing electronic distribution if such use is not permitted by the fair use doctrine) which will be submitted to UKnowledge as Additional File. I hereby grant to The University of Kentucky and its agents the irrevocable, non-exclusive, and royaltyfree license to archive and make accessible my work in whole or in part in all forms of media, now or hereafter known. I agree that the document mentioned above may be made available immediately for worldwide access unless an embargo applies. I retain all other ownership rights to the copyright of my work. I also retain the right to use in future works such as articles or books) all or part of my work. I understand that I am free to register the copyright to my work. REVIEW, APPROVAL AND ACCEPTANCE The document mentioned above has been reviewed and accepted by the student s advisor, on behalf of the advisory committee, and by the Director of Graduate Studies DGS), on behalf of the program; we verify that this is the final, approved version of the student s thesis including all changes required by the advisory committee. The undersigned agree to abide by the statements above. Emily Ludwig, Student Dr. Janet S. Kurzynske, Major Professor Dr. Kelly Webber, Director of Graduate Studies

3 FRUITANDVEGETABLECONSUMPTIONOFDIVISIONICOLLEGIATEFOOTBALL ANDVOLLEYBALLPLAYERSPRE5ANDPOST5DEREGULATIONOFSNACKSBYTHE NCAA THESIS AthesissubmittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeofMaster ofscienceinthecollegeofagriculture,food,andenvironmentattheuniversityof Kentucky By: EmilyQuinnLudwig,RD,LD Lexington,Kentucky Director:Dr.JanetS.Kurzynske,PhD,RD,ExtensionProfessorofDieteticsand HumanNutrition Lexington,KY 2015 Copyright EmilyQuinnLudwig2015

4 ABSTRACTOFTHESIS FRUITANDVEGETABLECONSUMPTIONOFDIVISIONICOLLEGIATEFOOTBALL ANDVOLLEYBALLPLAYERSPRE5ANDPOST5DEREGULATIONOFSNACKSBYTHE NCAA ThederegulationofsnacksbytheNationalCollegiateAthleticAssociationNCAA) permitsinstitutionstoprovideenhancedsnacksincidentaltoparticipation. Athletesmaynowhavetheopportunitytoimprovetheirdietquality.Thepurpose ofthisresearchwastoassesstheconsumptionoffruitsandvegetablesaswellas bodycompositionofdivisionicollegiateathletes.thesampleincluded19 Americanfootballplayersand8volleyballplayers.Pairedt5testswereperformedto comparefruitintake,vegetableintake,andbodyfatpercentagepre5andpost5 deregulationofsnacks.linearregressionmodelswereusedtodetermine correlationsbetweenchangeinfruitintakeandchangeinbodyfatpercentageand changeinvegetableintakeandchangeinbodyfatpercentage.therewereno significantdifferencesinthepairedt5tests;however,therewasasignificant correlationinincreasingfruitintake,vegetableintake,anddecreasingbodyfat percentageamongfootballplayers.resultssuggestthatregularcontactwitha RegisteredDietitianmayimprovedietquality,andprovidingnutrient5densefoods plannedbyaregistereddietitiantocollegeathletesmayimprovebodyfat percentage. KEYWORDS:Fruit,Vegetable,BodyFatPercentage,CollegeFootballPlayers,College VolleyballPlayers,BodPod EmilyQuinnLudwig November30,2015

5 FRUITANDVEGETABLECONSUMPTIONOFDIVISIONICOLLEGIATEFOOTBALL ANDVOLLEYBALLPLAYERSPRE5ANDPOST5DEREGULATIONOFSNACKSBYTHE NCAA By EmilyQuinnLudwig JanetKurzynske,PhD,RD DirectorofThesis KellyWebber,PhD,MPH,RD,LD DirectorofGraduateStudies November30,2015

6 TABLEOFCONTENTS ListofTables..iv ListofFigures..v ChapterOne:Introduction..1 ProblemStatement..2 Purpose...3 ResearchQuestion...3 Hypotheses...4 Justification...4 ChapterTwo:LiteratureReview 5 Introduction 5 DietQualityofCollegeStudents..5 DietQualityofCollegeAthletes...6 BodyComposition 8 MicronutrientIntakethroughFruitsandVegetablesand Performance..11 ChapterThree: Methodology.14 NCAA StudyDesign.14 Subjects Instruments Procedures StatisticalAnalysis ChapterFour:Results. 18 Demographics..18 PairedTWTests.. 22 Correlations ChapterFive:Discussion...29 Limitations. 32 ChapterSix:Conclusion.33 References:. 34 Vita..36 iii

7 LISTOFTABLES Table4.1,CharacteristicsofAmericanfootballplayersinApril Table4.2,CharacteristicsofAmericanfootballplayersinMarch Table4.3,CharacteristicsofvolleyballplayersinAugust Table4.4,CharacteristicsofvolleyballplayersinAugust Table4.5,StatisticsofpairedtWtestanalysisofpercentfatforfootballand volleyballplayers Table4.6,StatisticsofpairedtWtestanalysisofvegetableconsumptioncups) forfootballandvolleyballplayers Table4.7,StatisticsofpairedtWtestanalysisoffruitconsumptioncups)for footballandvolleyballplayers...24 iv

8 LISTOFFIGURES Figure1.1,TimelineofchangingbylawsbytheNCAA....2 Figure4.1,Scatterplotbetweenpercentfatandvegetableintakeamong football players..25 Figure4.2,Scatterplotbetweenpercentfatandvegetableintakeamong volleyball players Figure4.3,Scatterplotbetweenpercentfatandfruitintakeamongfootball players..27 Figure4.4,Scatterplotbetweenpercentfatandfruitintakeamongvolleyball players.. 28 v

9 CHAPTER1:Introduction Therearemultiplefacetsinoptimizingperformanceinathletes.Different sportsrequiredifferentbodytypes,makingbodycompositionanimportantrolein athletics.becausebodymassindexbmi)isnotanappropriateindicatorofbody typeforathletes,bodycompositionsaremostcommonlyusedtodeterminefitness levelmelvinetal.,2014).thesemeasurementsoftenserveasanindicatorofgoals tobeachievedtooptimizeanindividual sperformance.changesinanathlete sdiet andtrainingregimencanalterbodycompositionitwochangesthataregistered Dietitian,StrengthandConditioningstaff,andSportsMedicinestaffcanwork collectivelytoassistanathletetoimprove.whilestrengthandconditioningand SportsMedicineareestablisheddepartmentsinathletics,nutritionisanemerging aspectoftraininginmultiplelevelsofathletics,particularlyinthecollegiatesetting. Asnutritioncontinuestobecomeanintegralpartandpublicaspectoftraining,the NCAAbylawsarechanging. 1

10 ProblemStatement NCAADivisionIAthleticDepartmentsfirstsawchangeinbylawsregarding foodin1991.figure1.1illustratesatimelineofthechangingncaabylawsin regardstofoods. Figure1.1:TimelineofChangingBylawsbytheNCAA Priorto2014,underIfuelingoftheathletewasaconcernofprofessionalsin athletics.ifanathletedoesnotconsumeadequateamountsofprotein, carbohydrates,fats,vitamins,minerals,andphytochemicals,itisdifficultto optimizefullperformancepotentialandrecoverproperly.anathlete sdiet,aswell astheaverageamerican,isrichincarbohydratesandprotein.whatisoftenlacking istheconsumptionoffruitsandvegetablesifoodsourcesthatprovide micronutrientstohelpmusclesrecoverafterintenseexercise.astheimportanceof nutritioninathleticscontinuedtomakeheadlinenewsandregistereddietitians voicedconcernsofcurrentstandards,thencaaderegulatedthesnackruling, allowingathleticdepartmentstoprovideenhancedsnacksandmealsincidentalto participationinteamactivitiesbeginningaugust1 st,2014ncaa,2014).thenew rulingnotonlyallowsforcarbohydrates,butalsoprotein,vitamins,minerals,and phytochemicalstobeprovidedtotheathletes.thisderegulationhassparkeda 2

11 surgeinthehiringofregistereddietitianstoassistwithsportsteamsandthe buildingofnewfacilitiesfeaturingnutritioncentersoncampusesnationwide.what wasonceasimpleconcepthasnowprogressedtoalargeaspectoftrainingand recruitinginthecollegiatesetting.theprogressingemphasisonnutritionwillonly continuetoexpandwhatisofferedtoathletesonadailybasis. Withthepersistentemphasisonbodycompositionandthederegulationof snacks,thedietqualityofcollegeathletesmaybeopentochange.traditionally, collegeathleteshavehigherintakesofcarbohydratesandproteincomparedto intakesofvitaminsandminerals.sincethederegulationhasbeenputintoeffect, researchhasnotyetbeenconductedtodetermineifathletes intakesoffruitsand vegetableshaveincreasedorifthereisaneffectonbodycomposition.providing morenutrientsthroughfoodmayspurthequestionintheeffectonbody composition.itisthesetwofactorsthathaveformulatedtheaimofthisresearch. Purpose: Thepurposeofthisresearchwastoassesstheconsumptionoffruitsand vegetablesofdivisionicollegiateathletes.thisstudycomparedfruitandvegetable consumptionbeforeandafterthederegulationofsnacksbythencaa.bodyfat percentagewasalsobecomparedpreiandpostideregulation.theobjectiveofthis studywasstodetermineiffruitandvegetableintakeincreaseswhenprovided,and ifbodyfatpercentageimprovedwithincreasedconsumptionoffruitsand vegetablesamongdivisionicollegeathletes. ResearchQuestion: 1. DoesNCAAderegulationinsnacksincreasefruitconsumptioninDivisionI collegiateathletes? 2. DoesNCAAderegulationinsnacksincreasevegetableconsumptionin DivisionIcollegiateathletes? 3. DoesNCAAderegulationinsnacksdecreasebodyfatpercentageinDivisionI collegiateathletes? 3

12 Hypotheses: 1. NCAAderegulationinsnackswillincreasefruitconsumptioninDivisionI collegiateathletesasmeasuredbythe2005blockfoodfrequency Questionnaire. 2. NCAAderegulationinsnackswillincreasevegetableconsumptioninDivision Icollegiateathletesasmeasuredbythe2005BlockFoodFrequency Questionnaire. 3. NCAAderegulationinsnackswilldecreasebodyfatpercentageinDivisionI collegiateathletesasmeasuredbythebodpod. Justification: InapositionpaperwrittencollaborativelybytheAmericanDietetics Association,DietitiansofCanada,andtheAmericanCollegeofSportsMedicine, physicalactivity,athleticperformance,andrecoveryfromexerciseareenhancedby optimalnutritionjcsm,2009).therecentderegulationofsnacksbythencaa allowsforoptimalnutritiontobemoreeasilyobtained.thisresearchwillexamine theconsumptionoffruitsandvegetablesspecificallybeforeandafterthe deregulationalongwiththebodycompositionscorrespondingtothosedietary consumptions. 4

13 CHAPTER2:LiteratureReview Introduction InAugust2014,theNationalCollegiateAthleticAssociationNCAA)passed legislationtoderegulatetheprovisionofsnackstocollegeathleticsncaa,2014). Athleticdepartmentsarenolongerrestrictedtocertaincarbohydrateandprotein requirementsforfood,butcanprovidefruits,vegetables,protein,carbohydrate,and fattocollegiateathletes.thisnewregulationspursinterestintheeffectofthe availabilityofmorefoodontheathleticperformanceofcollegiateathletes.the followingliteraturereviewwillexplorepreviousresearchondietqualityofcollege studentsandathletes,bodycomposition,andfruitandvegetableintakeinorderto identifyareasforfurtherresearch. DietQualityofCollegeStudents Manycollegestudentsacquirenumerousresponsibilitieswhentheyattend collegethatdidnotfullyexistwhileinhighschool.oneoftheseresponsibilitiesis makingfoodchoicesdaily.previousresearchhasshownthatcollegestudentsgain approximately4to9poundsduringtheirfirstyearatcollegestrong,2008).the objectiveofthisstudyconductedonacollegecampusinvirginiawastoidentify potentialtargetstoimprovehealthbehaviorsinyoungadultsattendingcollege Strong,2008).FirstIandsecondIyearcollegestudentswererecruitedto participate.participantswereexcludediftheymajoredinnutritionorexercise,orif theyexperiencedsymptomsofdepression,eatingdisorders,ormajorchronic diseases.fortyithreeparticipantscompletedaseriesofquestionnairesand laboratoryibasedmeasurements.fooddiarieswereanalyzedusingthenutrient DataSystemforResearchsoftware.Averagecalorieconsumptionformaleswas 2,236±112kcal,andforfemaleswas1,711±90kcalStrong,2008).Forbothmales andfemales,percentageofcarbohydrate,fat,andproteinwas50%,35%,and15% oftotalenergy,respectively.averagedailyvegetableconsumptionwas1.5±0.1 cups,andaveragedailyfruitconsumptionwas1.0±0.2cupsstrong,2008).these 5

14 resultsindicatethatcollegestudentsarenotconsumingenoughfruitsand vegetables.limitationstothisstudyincludethesmallsamplesize,possible inaccuraciesinthefooddiaries,andvegetablesincludedallvarietiesofpotatoes. Anotherstudy spurposewastoexamineassociationsbetweenvariousmeal routines,practices,andkeydietaryindicatorsamongcollegestudents.thestudent HealthandWellnesssurveywasconductedamongpublicfourIyearuniversityand twoiyearuniversitycollegestudentsinthemetropolitanareaofminnesota.the onlinesurveytook30i35minutestocomplete.thefinalsampleincluded598twoi yearand603fouriyearstudentslaskaetal.,2014).fruitandvegetableintake wereselfireportedfor30daysusingavalidatedscreenerdevelopedbythenational CancerInstitute,andthencalculatedusingreportedconsumption.Frenchfries wereexcludedfromthecalculation.fruit,100%fruitjuice,salad,beans,potatoes, vegetables,tomatosauce,andsalsawereincludedinthecalculationlaskaetal., 2014).Resultsshowthatthemeanfruitandvegetableintakeperdaywas2.4cupI equivalentslaskaetal.,2014).thisfallsshortoftherecommendeddailyintakeof 4.5I5cupsoffruitsandvegetablesbytheUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture USDA,2015).Limitationsofthisstudyincludeasamplefromonegeographic locationlimitinggeneralizability.selfireportedmeasuresoffruitandvegetable intakeposeriskforerror. DietQualityofCollegeAthletes TheAcademyofNutritionandDietetics,DietitiansofCanada,andthe AmericanCollegeofSportsMedicinecollaboratedtodeterminenutritionalneedsfor athletes.energyandmacronutrientneedsmustbemetduringtimesofdemanding physicalactivitytomaintainbodyweight,replenishglycogenstores,andprovide adequateproteintobuildandrepairtissue.fatintakeshouldbesufficientto provideessentialfattyacidsandfatisolublevitamins.vitaminandmineral supplementationisnotneededifadequateenergytomaintainbodyweightis consumedfromavarietyoffoods.previously,itwasrecommendedthatfiveor moredailyservingsoffruitsandvegetablesprovidenutrientsandfiberforathletes 6

15 Rodriguezetal.,2009).Currently,theUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture makesrecommendationsforfruitandvegetableintakeincups.forcollegeiaged women,2.5cupsvegetablesand2cupsfruitsarerecommendeddaily.forcollegei agedmen,3cupsvegetablesand2cupsfruitsarethedailyrecommendations USDA,2015).Theserecommendationsareforindividualswhogetlessthan30 minutesofexerciseperday.thoughspecificrecommendationsarenotstatedfor collegiateathletes,theirneedsaregreaterduetoextensivephysicalactivity performedeachday.thefollowingstudiesevaluatethedietqualityofcollege athletes. Littleisknownaboutthedietqualityofcollegiateathletes.Astudywas conductedbyshriveretal.toassessenergyandmacronutrientintakesoffemale collegeathletescomparedtotheminimumsportsnutritionrecommendations determinedbypreviousresearch5g/kgbodyweight[bw]carbohydrate,1.2g/kg BWprotein,2g/kgBWproteinforstrengthathletesorweightlossathletes) Shriver,Betts,&Wollenberg,2013).Thesecondarypurposewastoexploredietary patternsandeatinghabitsinncaadivision1femalecollegiateathletes.body compositionwasfirsttakenusingadualienergyxirayabsorptiometrydexa) scan.atrainedresearchassistantobtaineda24ihourdietaryrecallfromeach participant.plasticfoodmodels,measuringspoons,cups,andbowlswereusedto obtainaccuratedata.eachparticipantthencompleteda3iday2weekdaysand1 weekend)foodrecord,anddietswereevaluatedusingthenutritionquestionnaire addressingquestionsaboutmeal/snackfrequency,diningout,hydration,weight management,andselfievaluationofdietquality.resultsindicatethemean proportionoftotalenergycomingfromcarbohydrates,protein,andfatwas53%, 16%,and31%respectively.Approximately91%ofparticipants reportedenergy intakedidnotmeettheirspecificneedsascalculatedfromthedexascanshriver, Betts,&Wollenberg,2013).Carbohydrateandproteinrecommendationswerenot metby74%and50%ofparticipants,respectively.regularbreakfastwasreported byonly27%ofparticipants.themeanfrequencyofdiningoutwas5.4times weekly.lessthanhalf44%)reportedtheirdietashealthy.athletesfoundit difficulttofollowatrainingdietwhentraveling22%).themajorityofcalories 7

16 wereconsumedintheevening.limitationstothisstudyincludeaccuracyofthe foodlogsandquestionnaire;however,usingbothtoolshelptoeliminate discrepancies.improvingeatinghabitsamongfemalecollegeathletescanoptimize nutritionalstatus,ensureproperrecoveryfromtraining,andmaximizeperformance Shriver,Betts,&Wollenberg,2013). BodyComposition Varioussportsrequirevaryingdegreesofenduranceandmuscularpowerto performskillsnecessaryforspecificsports.becauseofthis,differentbodytypes andcompositionsperformbetterincertainsportsorpositions.whileeach individualathleteisdifferent,researchhasbeenconductedtosuggestidealbody compositionsforoptimalperformance. AstudybyMiegloIAyusoetal.focusedonthebodycompositionofvolleyball players2014).becausevolleyballrequiresintermittentspurtsofhighintensity exercisefollowedbyperiodsoflowintensityactivity,variousperformance movementsarerequiredmiegloiayusoetal.,2014).differentpositionsalso requiredifferentmovementsmakingitlikelythateachpositionhasaunique anthropometricandphysiologicalprofiledesiredtooptimizeperformancemiegloi Ayusoetal.,2014).Inthisstudy,volleyballathleteswerecharacterizedbyposition includingmiddleblockersn=12),oppositehittersn=6),outsidehittersn=12), settersn=8),andliberosn=4)miegloiayusoetal.,2014).eachparticipatedina batteryofphysicalperformancetestsandhadanthropometricmeasurementstaken. FortyItwoSpanishfemalevolleyballplayersparticipatedwithameanageof27.2± 5.4years.HeightwasmeasuredusingaSECA measuringrod,bodymasswas assessedbyaseca modelscale.bodymassindexbmi)wascalculated,andbody compositionwasobtainedusingthesumof5skinfoldstakenwithaharpenden skinfoldcaliper.physicalperformancetestswereconductedusingbatterytests representativeoftheirtrainingandcompetitionload.significantdifferenceswere foundinallanthropometricvariablesandphysicalperformancetestsamongall groupsexceptrelaxedarmcorrectedgirth,thetricepsandsubscapularskinfolds, andthecrunchtestmiegloiayusoetal.,2014).significantdifferenceswerealso 8

17 foundinheightamongeveryplayingposition.middleblockerswerethetallest 186.5±1.4cm),whileliberosweretheshortest166.7±8.1cm).Oppositehitters weretheheaviest73.6±5.5kg),andliberoswerethelightest58.2±5.7kg). Liberosshowedsignificantlylowerverticaljumpsthansettersandoppositehitters. Themiddleblockersweresignificantlyslowerinthespeedtests.Therewasa negativecorrelationbetweenthetallestandheaviestplayersoftheteamandspeed. Middleblockersandoutsideandoppositehitterswerethetallest,heaviest,and slowestcomparedtootherpositions.liberosandsetterswerethesmallest,lightest, andfastestparticipants.conclusionsdrawnfromthisstudyarethatheightoffers thekeyperformanceadvantageformiddleblockers,whereaslowerbodymassand fatmassisadvantageousforsettersandliberosmiegloiayusoetal.,2014).high musculoskeletalmasswithanappropriatefatmassisdesiredforoppositeand outsidehitters.twolimitationstothisstudyarethesamplesize,andthe generalizabilityofthespanishethnicityoftheathletesinthestudy. Astudyalsoinvestigatingbodycompositioncharacteristicsfocusedonmale collegiatefootballathletes.measuringbodycompositionnotonlyoffersbaseline differencesacrosspositionsintermsofreferencinginjury,weightgainsorlosses, anddecliningperformance,butitalsoallowsforabetteridentificationofcurrent andfuturehealthrisksmelvinetal.,2014).thoughthetrendofincreasingphysical sizecontinuesinfootballplayers,itisimportanttoemphasizebodycompositionso astodecreasetheriskofdiseasemelvinetal.,2014).theprimarypurposeofthis studythereforewastoexaminebodycompositionof69ncaadivisionifootball players.furtherdifferencesofbodycompositionbetweenplayerposition,race, year,andstarterstatuswerealsoevaluated.eachparticipantcompletedone30i minutetestingsessionaftersummertrainingsession,butbeforetrainingcamp. Anthropometricmeasurementsweretakenandparticipantscompletedanexercise anddietquestionnaire.bodyfatpercentage,fatmass,andleanmasswere determinedbydualienergyxirayabsorptiometrymelvinetal.,2014).participants werecategorizedbyplayerposition,race,yearclassification,andstarterstatus.for fatpercentage,therewasnodifferencebetweentheoffensiveline22.3±2.3%)and defensiveline24.4±2.2%);however,bothpositionsweresignificantlygreaterthan 9

18 widereceivers,linebackers,defensivebacks,kickers/punters,andrunningbacks Melvinetal.,2014).Quarterbacks18.1±2.1%)hadsignificantlylesspercentfat thanoffensivelinemanbutsignificantlygreaterthandefensivebacks14.0±2.2%) Melvinetal.,2014).Linebackersandtightendsdidnothavesignificantdifferences infatpercentage,butweresignificantlygreaterthanquarterbacks,widereceivers, linebackers,defensivebacks,punters/kickers,andrunningbacksmelvinetal., 2014).Therewasnodifferenceinfatpercentagebetweenrace,yearclassification, orstarterstatus.bodymassindexbmi)rangesforoffensiveline30.4i39.4kg m )andfordefensiveline30.0i43.8kg m )categorizedparticipantsasobeseto severelyobese.bmirangesfordefensivebacks24.6i30.4kg m )andrunning backs26.8i32.0kg m )categorizedthemasoverweighttoobesemelvinetal., 2014).TheseresultssuggestthatusingBMIasameasurementofhealthforfootball athletesisnotareliablemeasure.bodyfatpercentageprovidesamoreaccurate interpretationforfootballathletes.conclusionsderivedfromthisstudyindicate thattherearevaryingbodycompositionsfordifferentpositionsinfootballto promoteoptimalperformance.limitationsincludelimitedfastingtimebeforebody compositiontesting. NatalieDigateMuth,aRegisteredDietitian,establishedbodyfatpercentage guidelinesformaleandfemaleathletes2009).forfemaleathletes,the recommendedbodyfatpercentageisbetween14and20%.maleathletesare recommendedtoobtainabodyfatpercentagebetween6and13%muth,2009). Whilethesevaluesarenotsportspecific,theyprovideapointofreferencewhen measuringcollegiateathletesbodycomposition. 10

19 MicronutrientIntakethroughFruitsandVegetablesandPerformance Mostresearchregardingdietqualityofathletesfocusesonmacronutrients; however,somestudieshavebeguntoinvestigatetheimportanceofmicronutrients inanathlete sdiet,specificallypertainingtorecovery. TheintentionofLamprecht sresearchreviewistobuildabridgebetween thesciencebehindfruitandvegetablesupplementationinexerciseandthepractical relevanceofitsapplicationontheother.increasedmetabolismduetoexercise trainingresultsinincreaseddemandsforenergy,protein,carbohydrate,water, essentialfattyacids,andmicronutrientslamprecht,2013).adeficitof micronutrientswithantioxidantfunctionscanresultinoxidativestressand molecularcellandtissuedamage.anincreaseinoxidativestresscanincrease inflammatoryprocesses,decreaseimmunity,andincreasethesusceptibilityto injuryandprolongedrecoveryinathleteslamprecht,2013).tocombatthese risks,fruitandvegetableconsumptionisimperativeforathletes.inaresearch articlelookingattrainedanduntrainedindividuals,dailyconsumptionof commerciallyavailablefruitandvegetableconcentrateincreasedserum concentrationsofantioxidantvitamins.numerousarticleshavereportedreduced concentrationsofoxidativestressandinflammatorymarkers.anotherpilotstudy reviewedinthisarticlerevealedthata3iweeksupplementationwithafruitand vegetableconcentratereducedconcentrationsofcarbonylproteinsiamarkerof oxidativestressbeforeandaftermountainbikinglambrecht,2013).themixed fruitandvegetableconcentratewasgivenwiththelastmealbeforeexerciseandthe firstmealpostiexercise.anotherresearchstudyfoundthatfruitandvegetable capsulesupplementationreducedfrequencyofthecommoncold,sorethroat,and fever.whilesupplementationisnottheidealanswerforgapsinadiet,thisreview doeshighlightthepositiveeffectsoftheantioxidantsfoundinfruitsandvegetables. AnotherstudyexaminedtheeffectsofaflavonoidIrichfreshfruitand vegetablejuiceonchronicrestingandpostiexerciseinflammation,oxidativestress, immunefunction,andmetabolicprofilesinelitesprintandmiddleidistance swimmers.nineelitemalesprintandmiddleidistanceswimmerswererecruited andwerecomparedtoacontrolgroupof7noniathleticparticipants.theswimmers 11

20 wererandomizedintojuiceornonijuiceanddrank8floz.ofjuicepreiandposti trainingfor10consecutivedays.thejuiceconsistedofthefollowing:reddelicious appleincludingpeel),orangeincludingpeel),redbellpepper,carrot,broccoli, parsley,tomato,cucumberincludingpeel),blueberries,strawberries,blackberries, andpineappleknabet.al.,2013).therewasa3iweekwashoutperiodbetween juiceandnonijuicetrials.theathletesmaintainedthesametrainingthroughoutthe trial,whereasthecontrolgroupmaintainednormaleatingandphysicalactivity patterns.allparticipantscompletedabaselinefitnesstestandwereinstructedon keepinga3idayfoodlog.bodycompositionwasmeasuredusingthebodpod. Bloodsamplesweretakentodeterminevaluesforseveninflammatorycytokines. Themeanbodyfatpercentageofswimmerswas11.7+/I0.8%comparedto controlsat19.6+/i1.6%.swimmersconsumedanaverageof4,105kcal/day consistingof49%carbohydrate,18%protein,and33%fatknabet.al.,2013).no effectofthejuicefor10dayswasfoundonexerciseiinducedmeasuresof inflammation,oxidativestress,orimmunefunction;however,duetolowposti exerciseinflammation,oxidativestress,andimmunefunction,therewasnotmuch roomforthefruitandvegetablejuicetohaveaneffect.thiswasamajorlimitation inthestudy.thesmallsamplesizealsoisalimitationtotheresults. 12

21 Conclusion Currentresearchsupportstheneedforadequatenutritionincollege students,specificallycollegeathletes.propernutritionisnecessarytomaximize athleticperformanceandoptimizefitness.whilemuchresearchfocuseson macronutrients,thereisagapintheliteratureconcentratingonmicronutrients. Thereisalsoalackofpublishedresearchshowingtherelationshipbetweendiet qualityandbodyfatpercentage. NewNCAAregulationsregardingfoodandnutritionthatcanbemade availabletocollegeathletesbeganinaugust2014.becauseofthisnewderegulation offood,athletescanbeexposedtowidervarietiesoutsidethetraditionalfruits, nuts,andbagels.thisstudyisbelievedtobethefirsttoexaminetheimpactofthe newncaaregulationsondietquality,specificallyfruitandvegetableintake,and bodyfatpercentage. 13

22 CHAPTER 3: Methodology National Collegiate Athletic Association NCAA) The NCAA is a membership- driven organization that is dedicated to upholding the well being of collegiate student- athletes pertaining to the classroom, playing field, and life outside of college NCAA, 2015). The NCAA is committed to enforcing rules and creating fair competition NCAA, 2015). One of these rules includes providing food for athletes. The first rule regarding food came into effect on August 1, This rule stated: An institution may provide only one training table meal per day to a student- athlete during the academic year on those days when regular institutional dining facilities are open. CPSDA, 2015). This ruling did not include non- scholarship athletes; however, they were allowed to purchase a training table meal with their own money. Three years later the NCAA authorized schools to provide fruits, nuts, and bagels to student- athletes throughout the day. In August 2012, the NCAA began allowing institutions to provide spreads i.e. jelly, peanut butter, cream cheese) for the bagels. Finally in August 2014, the NCAA deregulated all snacking for institutions. This deregulation allowed for an institution to provide meals and snacks to all student- athletes scholarship and non- scholarship) at its discretion as a benefit incidental to participation in intercollegiate athletics NCAA, 2015). Study Design This research was a non- randomized, quantitative, pre- post design. The measurements analyzed for this study were a portion of a larger data set from a research project conducted by the Department of Dietetics and Human Nutrition at the University of Kentucky. The University of Kentucky Institutional Review Board IRB) originally approved the study in August 2010 with continuation approval in subsequent years. The full research project composed of data collected via the Bod Pod, anthropometric measurements of height and waist circumference, the EDI- 3 Eating Disorder Inventory Referral Form, and the Block Dietary Data Systems

23 FoodFrequencyQuestionnaire.Theonlydatausedinthisstudywerebodyfat percentagemeasuredviathebodpod,anddailyservingsoffruitsandfruitjuices anddailyservingsofvegetablesviatheblockdietarydatasystems2005food FrequencyQuestionnaire. Subjects TwentyIsevenNCAADivisionImaleandfemalecollegiateathletesbetween theagesof18and25participatedinthisstudy.nineteenamericanfootballplayers andeightvolleyballplayerswereincludedinthisstudy.bodycompositionandfruit andvegetableintakeweredeterminedpreideregulationofsnacksinaprilof2014 andpostideregulationofsnacksbythencaainmarch2015forfootballplayers. Forvolleyballplayers,bodycompositionandfruitandvegetableintakewere collectedpreideregulationofsnacksinaugust2014andpostideregulationin August2015.ParticipantswereincludedifaBodPod measurementandfood FrequencyQuestionnairepreIderegulationofsnacksandpostIderegulationof snacksexisted.thiswasaconveniencesamplebecausethesetwoteamshaddata availablepriortothederegulationofsnacksbythencaa.eachparticipantsigneda consentformpriortotheassessmentinformingoftheproceduresforthefruitand vegetablesurveyandanthropometricmeasurements,aswellasanexplanationof theresearch. Instruments AllsurveymeasurementsusedforthisstudywerecompletedintheNutrition AssessmentLaboratoryattheUniversityofKentucky.Themeasurementsusedfor thisstudyincludedbodyfatpercentageassessmentviathebodpod,andfruitand vegetableconsumptionestimatedbythe2005blockdietarydatasystemsfood FrequencyQuestionnaire. 15

24 BodPod TheBodPod isacomputerized,eggishaped,twoicompartmentair displacementplethysmographmachinethatdeterminesbodycompositioninadults andchildrenaccommodatingawiderangeofpopulations.thebodpod is servicedbyamanufacturerrepresentativeannuallyperprotocol.priortoeach testingsession,thebodpod iscalibratedincompliancewithmanufacturer instructions.inastudycomparingairdisplacementplethysmographanddual energyxirayabsorptiometrydexa)formeasuringbodycomposition,height,and weight,thebodpod wasshownasavalidatedinstrumenttoobtainsuchdata Ballard,Fafara,&Vukovich,2004).Participantswereaskedtonotconsumefoodor beverages,orparticipateinanyphysicalactivityfourhourspriortotesting.males woreonlyspandexshortsandaswimcap,whilefemalesworespandexshortswith asportsbraoratightifittingswimsuitandaswimcap.alljewelryandeyeglasses wereremoved.trainedpersonnelconductedthebodpod datacollectionand extractionofdatafromthesoftware. FoodFrequencyQuestionnaire The2005BlockFoodFrequencyQuestionnairewasdesignedtoestimate usualandhabitualintakeofawidespanofnutrientsandfoodgroups.thefoodlist wasdevelopedfromnhanes1999i2002dietaryrecalldata,andthenutrient databasewasdevelopedfromtheusdafoodandnutrientdatabasefordietary Studies.Thequestionnairewasvalidatedthroughastudycomparingmultiplediet recordsandtheselfiadministereddiethistoryquestionnaireblock,1990).pictures ofportionsizeswereprovidedtoenhanceaccuracyofquantification. Approximately110fooditemsarereferencedinthepaperquestionnaire.Two categoriesthatwereanalyzedtodeterminefruitandvegetableintakeweredaily cupsoffruitandfruitjuicesanddailycupsofvegetables. 16

25 Procedures ParticipantscompletedtheselfIadministeredfoodfrequencyquestionnaire andsubmittedthemattheirindividuallyscheduledbodpod measurement. Footballathletes datawereconductedinapril2014andmarch2015priorto deregulationandafterderegulation,andvolleyballathletes datawerecollectedin August2014andAugust2015beforederegulationandafterderegulation.Afterthe initialdatacollection,theinterventiongroup,footballathletes,receivedconstant interactionwitharegistereddietitian,whichinvolvedgrouppresentations, individualeducations,andenhancedsnackandmealmanagement.volleyball athletes,receivedgrouppresentationsandindividualeducationsonceeachmonth; however,aregistereddietitiandidnotinfluenceororderthesnacksandmeals provided.footballplayerscompletedtheselfiadministeredfoodfrequency questionnaireandhadbodycompositionmeasurementsbythebodpod inaugust 2015,oneyearafterthepreIderegulationdatacollection.Footballathleteshadthe samedatacollectedinmarch2015;oneyearafterthepreiregulationdatawas obtained.bodycompositionswerepairedpreiandpostiintervention,aswellas fruitandvegetableconsumptionpairedpreiandpostiintervention. StatisticalAnalysis ThesoftwareusedforstatisticalanalysiswasJMP 10.0.Astandardpaired titestwasusedtocomparefruitintake,vegetableintake,andbodycompositionprei deregulationandpostideregulation.changesovertimewithingroupswere determinedusingpairedtitests.additionally,linearregressionmodelswere exploredtodetermineacorrelationbetweenchangeinbodyfatpercentageand changeinvegetableintake,andchangeinbodyfatpercentageandchangeinfruit intakeamongfootballplayersandvolleyballplayers. 17

26 CHAPTER4:RESULTS DemographicsofSubjects The19Americanfootballplayerswhoparticipatedinthisstudywereall male.the8volleyballplayersincludedintheresearchwereallfemale.tables4.1, 4.2,4.3,and4.4displaythecharacteristicsofthefootballplayersandvolleyball playersatdatacollectiontimes. Table4.1:CharacteristicsofAmericanfootballplayersinApril2014.N=19) Minimum Maximum Mean Standard Deviation Height inches) Weight pounds) BodyFat Percentage Vegetable Intakecups) FruitIntake cups) Thesampleincluded19Americanfootballathletes.Fiveofnineteen 26.32%)offootballplayerswereAfricanAmerican.AsshowninTable4.1,inApril 2014forfootballplayers,themeanheightwas74.21±2.9inches,themeanweight was249.23±51.62pounds,andthemeanbodyfatpercentagewas19.26±6.91. Theaveragefruitintakeincupswas1.63±0.83,andtheaveragevegetableintakein cupswas1.68±0.74.theseintakesfallshortoftheusdaminimumdaily recommendationsformalesof2cupsoffruitand3cupsofvegetableseachday USDA,2015). 18

27 Table4.2:CharacteristicsofAmericanfootballplayersinMarch2015.N=19) Minimum Maximum Mean Standard Deviation Heightinches) Weight pounds) BodyFat Percentage Vegetable Intakecups) FruitIntake cups) InMarch2015,themeanheightwas74.19±2.94inches,themeanweight was250.56±54.97pounds,andthemeanbodyfatpercentagewas19.37±7.41. Theaveragefruitintakeincupswas1.62±0.81,andaveragevegetableintakein cupswas1.82±0.78.theseintakesalsodonotmeettheusdaminimumintake recommendationsformales. 19

28 Table4.3:CharacteristicsofvolleyballplayersinAugust2014.N=8) Minimum Maximum Mean Standard Deviation Heightinches) Weight pounds) BodyFat Percentage Vegetable Intakecups) FruitIntake cups) Thesampleincluded8volleyballathletes.Threeofeight37.5%)volleyball playersclassifiedthemselvesasafricanamerican.table4.3displaysthe anthropometricmeasurementsforvolleyballplayersinaugust2014.themean heightwas71.46±2.59inches,themeanweightwas166.59±21.78pounds,and themeanbodyfatpercentagewas18.86±2.17.theaveragefruitintakeincups was0.94±0.84,andthemeanvegetableintakewas1.29±1.20.theseintakesdo notmeettheusdaminimumdailyrecommendationsof2cupsfruitand2.5cupsof vegetablesforfemalesusda,2015). 20

29 Table4.4:CharacteristicsofvolleyballplayersinAugust2015.N=8) Minimum Maximum Mean Standard Deviation Heightinches) Weight pounds) BodyFat Percentage Vegetable Intakecups) FruitIntake cups) ForAugust2015,themeanheightwas71.46±2.59,themeanweightwas ±17.33pounds,andthemeanbodyfatpercentagewas19.75±1.75for volleyballplayers.meanfruitintakewas1.58±2.12,andmeanvegetableintake was1.76±1.53,againfallingshortoftheminimumrecommendations. 21

30 BodyFatPercentage Table4.5:StatisticsofpairedtItestanalysisofpercentfatforfootballandvolleyball players. PairedDifferences Mean Difference Std.Error Mean 95%ConfidenceIntervalof thedifferences Lower Upper t df Sig. prob< t) Pair1 PercentFat Football April 2014 PercentFat Football March 2015 I I I Pair2 PercentFat Volleyball August 2014 PercentFat Volleyball August I ThepairedtItestanalysisofbodyfatpercentageforfootballplayersbetween April2014andMarch2015andvolleyballplayersbetweenAugust2014andAugust 2015revealednosignificance;however,onaverage,footballplayersdecreased bodyfatpercentageby1.2%,andvolleyballplayersincreasedbodyfatpercentage by0.88%.theseresultsindicatethattherewasnotadecreaseinbodyfat percentageamongfootballandvolleyballplayerspostideregulationofsnacks. 22

31 VegetableIntake Table4.6:StatisticsofpairedtItestanalysisofvegetableconsumptioncups)for footballandvolleyballplayers PairedDifferences Mean Difference Std.Error Mean 95%ConfidenceInterval ofthedifferences Lower Upper t df Sig. prob> t) Pair3 Pair4 Vegetable Intake Football April2014 Vegetable Intake Football March2015 Vegetable Intake Volleyball August 2014 Vegetable Intake Volleyball August I I Therewasnosignificantdifferenceinvegetableintakeincups)forfootball playersbetweenapril2014andmarch2015,orvolleyballplayersbetweenaugust 2014andAugust2015afterapairedtItestwasconducted.Onaverage,football playersincreasedvegetableconsumptionby0.13cups,andvolleyballplayers increasedby0.47cups.theseresultsindicatethattherewasnotanincreasein vegetableconsumptionpostideregulationofsnacksforfootballorvolleyball players. 23

32 FruitIntake Table4.7:StatisticsofpairedtItestanalysisoffruitconsumptioncups)forfootball andvolleyballplayers PairedDifferences Mean Difference Std.Error Mean 95%ConfidenceInterval ofthedifferences Lower Upper t df Sig.prob >t) Pair5 FruitIntake Football April 2014 FruitIntake Football March 2015 I I I Pair6 FruitIntake Volleyball August 2014 FruitIntake Volleyball August I Onaverage,footballplayersdecreasedfruitconsumptionby0.01cups,and volleyballplayersincreasedby0.64cups.statistically,therewasnosignificant differenceinfruitintakeincups)forfootballplayersbetweenapril2014and March2015,orvolleyballplayersbetweenAugust2014andAugust2015aftera pairedtitestwasconducted.theseresultsindicatethattherewasnotanincreasein fruitconsumptionpostideregulationofsnacksforfootballorvolleyballplayers. 24

33 CorrelationsbetweenBodyFatPercentageandVegetableIntake Figure4.1:Scatterplotbetweenpercentfatandvegetableintakeamongfootball players Table4.8:Linearregressionanalysisofchangeinbodyfatpercentageand changeinvegetableintakeincupsforfootballplayersfrom2014to2015 RISquare Change invcup Intake Slope) Displayingthecorrelationsbetweenbodyfatpercentageandvegetable intakeamongfootballplayersandvolleyballplayersusingscatterplotsrevealed somerelationshipbetweenthevariables.infootballplayers,thoughtherisquare valuewasmoderatelystrong0.212),theprobabilitythattherewasanincreasein vegetableintakeincups)relatedtoadecreaseinbodyfatpercentagewas significantp=0.0471).theseresultsindicatethatincreasingintakeofvegetables maydecreasebodyfatpercentagewithregularcontactwitharegistereddietitian whoplanssnacksavailable. YI Intercept FRatio Prob> F I4.22 I * t Ratio Prob> ItI" I * 25

34 Figure4.2:Scatterplotbetweenpercentfatandvegetableintakeamongvolleyball players Table4.9:Linearregressionanalysisofchangeinbodyfatpercentageand changeinvegetableintakeincupsforvolleyballplayersfrom2014to2015 wasnosignificanceintheprobabilityofanincreaseinvegetableintakeincups) relatedtoadecreaseinbodyfatpercentagep=0.9029). Change RISquare invcup YI Prob> t Prob FRatio Intake Intercept F Ratio >ItI" Slope) I I Involleyballplayers,theRISquarevaluewasalsoweak0.002),andthere 26

35 CorrelationsBetweenBodyFatPercentageandFruitIntake Figure4.3:Scatterplotbetweenpercentfatandfruitintakeamongfootballplayers Table4.10:Linearregressionanalysisofchangeinbodyfatpercentageand changeinfruitintakeincupsforfootballplayersfrom2014to2015 Presentingthecorrelationsbetweenbodyfatpercentageandfruitintake amongfootballplayersandvolleyballplayersusingscatterplotsrevealedsome relationshipbetweenthevariables.infootballplayers,thoughtherisquarevalue wasmoderatelystrong0.2298),theprobabilitythattherewasanincreaseinfruit intakeincups)relatedtoadecreaseinbodyfatpercentagewassignificant p=0.0378)indicatingthatincreasingfruitintakemaydecreasebodyfatpercentage withregularinteractionwitharegistereddietitianwhoplanssnacks. RISquare Change invcup Intake Slope) YI Intercept FRatio Prob> F t Ratio Prob >ItI" 0.23 I3.19 I * I * 27

36 Figure4.4:Scatterplotbetweenpercentfatandfruitintakeamongvolleyballplayers Table4.11:Linearregressionanalysisofchangeinbodyfatpercentageand changeinfruitintakeincupsforvolleyballplayersfrom2014to2015 RISquare Change invcup Intake Slope) YI Intercept FRatio Prob> F t Ratio Prob >ItI" 0.01 I I Involleyballplayers,theRISquarevaluewasveryweak0.006),butthere wasnosignificanceintheprobabilityofanincreaseinfruitintakeincups)related toadecreaseinbodyfatpercentagep=0.8517). 28

37 CHAPTER5:Discussion Thepurposeofthisresearchwastoexaminetheconsumptionoffruitsand vegetablesofdivisionicollegiateathletes.thisstudycomparedfruitandvegetable consumptionbeforeandafterthederegulationofsnacksbythencaaindivisioni collegefootballandvolleyballathletes.bodyfatpercentagewasalsocomparedprei andpostideregulation.theobjectiveofthisstudywastodetermineiffruitand vegetableintakeincreaseswhenprovided,andifbodyfatpercentageimproveswith increasedconsumptionoffruitsandvegetablesamongdivisionicollegeathletes. Vegetableconsumptionandfruitconsumptionwerecollectedusingthe2005 BlockDietaryDataSystemsFoodFrequencyQuestionnaire.Bodyfatpercentage wascollectedusingthebodpod.fruitandvegetableconsumptionwereanalyzed separatelyduetothefactthatfruitinsomeformwasavailablepreviouslyfor athletes,whereasvegetableswerenot.awidervarietyandlargerquantityoffruits wereavailableafterderegulation.forfootballathletes,datawerefirstcollectedin April2014,preIderegulationofsnacksbytheNCAA.Regularcontactwiththe RegisteredDietitianwasconsistentpriortoderegulationandduringthe intervention.footballathletesalsowereprovidedenhancedsnacksplannedbya RegisteredDietitian.Priortoderegulation,snackswerelimitedtofruits,nuts,and bagelsplannedbyaregistereddietitian.afterderegulation,snackavailability increasedtoincludeproteinoptions,aswellasfoodsrichinvitaminsandminerals, likevegetablesandalargerselectionoffruit.variouscarbohydratefoodsources werestillavailable.bodyfatpercentageandfruitandvegetableintakewerethen collectedforfootballathletes1yearlaterinmarch2015.forvolleyballathletes, initialdatawascollectedinaugust2014.preiandpostideregulation,volleyball playershadlimitedcontactwitharegistereddietitian,andaregistereddietitian didnotplanavailablesnacks.snacksprovidedgenerallyconsistedoffruits,nuts, bars,andbagelsnotplannedbyadietitian.datawerethencollected1yearlaterin August

38 Thehypothesesofthisresearchwerethattherewouldbeanincreaseinfruit consumptionandvegetableconsumption,andadecreaseinbodyfatpercentage. PairedtItestswereconductedresultinginnosignificantdifferenceinbodyfat percentage,vegetableintake,orfruitintakeforfootballplayersorvolleyballplayers betweenpreideregulationofsnacksandpostideregulationofsnacks.theseresults suggestthattherewasnotasignificantdecreaseinbodyfatpercentage,ora significantincreaseinfruitandvegetableconsumptionamongfootballplayersor volleyballplayers,despiteanincreaseinfoodavailabilityforfootballplayers; however,volleyballplayersonaverageincreasedtheircombinedfruitandvegetable intakebyapproximately1cup,whichisasignificantincreasedespitethestatistical results.exposuretoadietitiandidnotchangepreideregulationandposti deregulationintherespectivegroups,butremainedhighforfootballandlow volleyball.volleyballplayersdidnotmeettheusdarecommendationsforaverage femalesof2.5cupsofvegetablesand2cupsoffruitspreiorpostideregulation. FootballplayersalsodidnotmeettheUSDArecommendationsforaveragemalesof 3cupsofvegetablesand2cupsoffruitspreIandpostIderegulation.These shortfallsshowthatathletesarenotmeetingtheminimumfruitandvegetable consumptionfortheaveragehumanbeing,muchlesstheincreasedneedsof athletes. Linearregressionmodelswerealsousedtodetermineacorrelationbetween achangeinbodyfatpercentageandvegetableintakeandachangeinbodyfat percentageandfruitintakeforfootballandvolleyballplayers.therewasstatistical significanceinthecorrelationofvegetableintakeandbodyfatpercentageinfootball athletesshowinganegativerelationship.asvegetableintakeincreased,bodyfat percentagedecreased.therewasalsosignificanceinincreasingfruitconsumption anddecreasingbodyfatpercentageamongfootballplayers.theseresultsshowthat consumptionoffruitsandvegetablesdecreasefatmass.also,substitutingnutrienti densefoodswithfewercaloriesvegetablesandfruits)forfoodsnotasnutritious andhigherincaloriesarecorrelatedwithalowerbodyfatpercentageasexpected. Figure4.1and4.3showthreepossibleoutliersinthelinearregressionmodel. 30

39 Thesedatapointswerenotremovedfromthedataset.Oneobservationwasstill includedbecausebothfruitandvegetableintakedecreasedandbodyfatpercentage increased.fruitsandvegetablesconsumedpriortoderegulationwerelikely replacedwithfoodshigherincaloriesandnotasnutrientidenseasfruitsand vegetables,resultinginanincreaseinbodyfatpercentage.anotherpossibleoutlier increasedfruitandvegetableconsumptionby1.57and1.62cupsrespectively,and decreasedbodyfatpercentageby18.8%.itislikelythatthisfootballplayer substitutedfruitsandvegetablesforhighcalorieoptionsthatarenotasnutrienti dense.theotherpossibleoutlierincreasedfruitintakeby1.01cups,butdecreased hisvegetableintakeby0.1cups.thebodyfatpercentagedecreasedby14.3%. Theseresultsarejustifiedbythetheorythatthefootballathletessubstitutedfruit forhighercaloriefoods.forvolleyballathletes,therewasnocorrelationbetweena changeinfruitorvegetableintakeandachangeinbodyfatpercentage.these resultsmaysignifythatregularcontactwitharegistereddietitiancanimprovediet quality,specificallyfruitandvegetableconsumptionamongathletespromoting improvementsinbodycomposition. 31

40 Limitations Thereareseverallimitationsinthisstudythatmayaffecttheresultsfound. Alloftheathletesincludedinthisstudywerefromthesameuniversity.Thesample sizeisalsoalimitation.becausethestudyincludedpreiexistingdata,thesample sizewasonly19footballplayers,and8volleyballplayers.forthesetworeasons,it cannotbeassumedthattheseathletesarearepresentationofallcollegiateathletes andindicatestheneedforreplicationwithalargersamplesizeinothersettings. Also,alargersamplesizemayhavefoundsignificanceinthechangeinbodyfat percentage,vegetableintake,orfruitintake.differencesamongthetightifitting clothingandswimcapsprovidedtotheplayersduringbodpod testingmayhave impactedbodyfatpercentageresults.also,allfactorsthatmayhaveaffectedbody fatpercentage,likehydration,timeofdayforheightandweight,andthemanual evaluationandrecordingofheightcouldhaveinfluencedtestresults.thelengthof the2005blockfoodfrequencyquestionnairemayhaveprovidedsome inaccuracies;however,thechangeinfruitandvegetableconsumptionisassumedto beunaffected. 32

41 CHAPTER6:Conclusion Thisstudysuggeststhereisanegativerelationshipbetweenfruitintakeand bodyfatpercentage,andvegetableintakeandbodyfatpercentageamongfootball athleteswithregularinteractionwitharegistereddietitianwhoplanssnacks available.asfruitorvegetableintakeincrease,bodyfatpercentagedecreased.due tothederegulationofsnacksbythencaa,increasingvitaminsandminerals throughfruitsandvegetablesavailableforathletescanhaveapositiveimpacton dietandbodyfatpercentage.bothcanplayrolesinoptimizingathleticperformance amongathletes.despitetheincreasedavailability,athletesarestillfallingshortof therecommendationsforfruitandvegetableintake.continuingtoprovide education,nutrientidensesnacks,varietyoffruitsandvegetables,andconstant interactionwitharegistereddietitianmayclosethisgap. 33

42 References Ballard,T.P.,Fafara,L.,Vukovich,M.D.2004).ComparisonofBodPodandDXAin femalecollegiateathletes.medicineandscienceinsportsandexercise; 364):731I735. BlockG,WoodsM,PotoskyA,CliffordC.1990).ValidationofaselfIadministered diethistoryquestionnaireusingmultipledietrecords.jclinepidemiol; 43:1327I1335. CollegiateandProfessionalSportsDietitiansAssociationCPSDA).2015).Timeline ofcpsdaadvocacyeffortsleadingtothencaa sderegulationofathlete Feeding.Retrievedfrom TimelineIFINAL.pdf Knab,A.M.,Nieman,D.C.,Gillitt,N.D.,Shanely,R.A,CialdellaIKam,L.,Henson,D.A., Sha,W.2013).EffectsofaFlavonoidIRichJuiceonInflammation,Oxidative Stress,andImmunityinEliteSwimmers:AMetabolomicsIBasedApproach. InternationalJournalofSportNutritionandExerciseMetabolism,23:150I160. Lambrecht,M.2013).SupplementationwithMixedFruitandVegetable ConcentratesinRelationtoAthlete shealthandperformance:scientificinsight andpracticalrelevance.medicalsportscience,59:70i85. Laska,M.N.,Hearst,M.O.,Lust,K.,Lytle,L.A.,Story,M.2014).Howweeatwhatwe eat:identifyingmealroutinesandpracticesmoststronglyassociatedwith healthyandunhealthydietaryfactorsamongyoungadults.publichealth Nutrition,1812):2135I2145. Melvin,M.N.,SmithIRyan,A.C.,Wingfield,H.L.,Ryan,E.D.,Trexler,E.T.,Roelofs,E.J. 2014).MuscleCharacteristicsandBodyCompositionofNCAADivisionI FootballPlayers.JournalofStrengthandConditioningResearch,2812):3320I MiegloIAyuso,J.,CallejaIGonzalez,J.C.,ClementeISuarez,V.J.,Zourdos,M.C.2014). Influenceofanthropometricprofileonphysicalperformanceinelitefemale volleyballersinrelationtoplayingposition.nutritionhospital,312):849i857. Muth,N.D.2009).AmericanCouncilonExercise.Whataretheguidelinesfor percentageofbodyfatloss?retrievedfromwww.acefitness.org NationalCollegiateAthleticAssociationNCAA).2015).MealsDergegulation: OptimizingHowWeFeedStudentXAthletesforRecoveryandPerformance [PowerpointSlides].Retrievedfrom pdf 34