Knowing Me, Knowing You. Aha (Or Not): The Impact of Personality Type on Response to Advertising Image Abstract We investigate potential congruence between image types in print advertisements and consumers perceiving preferences. These orientations are classified as sensing (S) or intuiting (N) by the well-established Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), underpinned by Jungian philosophy. Earlier results (LaBarbera et al., 1998) indicated congruence between consumers grouped by S and N perceiving preference and corresponding images classified across 4 product categories, implying use by practitioners of this matching concept to strengthen impact and predict consumer responses to advertising Our study replicates and extends this original study, differing in time frame, geography and sample. The original research was carried out in 1998 in New York, with an unintended bias towards intuitive types. This study used a UK sample recruited with a greater balance between the two preference groups, a decade later. This study found no congruence between image type and the corresponding consumer perceiving preference groups against any of the measures of image appeal, overall advertisement appeal or intention to purchase. This study implies that advertising and marketing professionals should not rely on this matching concept to strengthen impact or to predict consumer response. Practitioners are exhorted to ignore findings which remain unreplicated. Key words: MBTI, processing styles, advertising images, print advertising, generalisations, replication 1
Introduction Despite numerous proposed models, understanding of the communication process remains elusive (Wilmshurst and MacKay, 1999). Attempts to explore the relationship between consumer personality and response to advertising messages have resulted in inconclusive findings (Holbrook, 1986; Wright, 1975; Aaker,1997; LaBarbera et al., 1998; McBride et al., 1987). One explanation offered for the inconsistent findings is that studies have been based on exercises profiling consumers across accepted personality traits, rather than on a personality theory rooted in cognitive style (LaBarbera et al. 1998). One instrument based on cognitive personality theory is the Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), the most widely used personality assessment tool in business (Leonard and Straus, 1997) describing individual preferences for acquiring, processing and using information (Myers and McCaulley,1985). It assesses individuals across 4 dimensions: extroversion/introversion, sensing/intuiting, thinking/feeling, judging/perceiving and identifies 4 preferences (see Appendix 1) categorising16 personality types (Myers, 1992). We are concerned here with the perceiving function - how an individual prefers to take in information (Myers,1992). The options here are sensing or intuitive (S/N) styles. Sensing types are interested in the concrete, focus on the immediate, and are realistic having a memory for detail dependent on their senses (Myers,1992: Myers and McCaulley,1985). Intuitives are interested in patterns and relationship focusing on possibilities, the abstract dependent on intuitions that emerge subconsciously (Myers, 1992, Myers and McCaulley, 1985). Sensors tend to concentrate on the detail of an image and stay within the limits of its context whereas intuitives make more assumptions that may not be evidenced in the image, and consider future possibilities (Russell, 2001). This distinction suggests that personality may offer insights into responses to advertising images, offering significant commercial benefits. However these potential rewards can only be realised if this congruence is proven. Previous Research Previous work in this area has focused on the link between perceiving types and advertising appeal, advertising imagery, and the effect on intention to purchase. McBride (1987) proposed a congruence model suggesting a receiver would find an object more appealing when consistent with their personality. Implicit in this model is that objects, such as products and/or advertising messages, intrinsically possess a personality type or can be positioned to represent a type. This study provided the foundation for LaBarbera et al. s (1998) later more focused research, which specifically investigated the potential congruence between the imagery in print advertising and subjects preferred perceiving preference (sensing/intuiting). The reported results indicated support for hypotheses on three measures of image appeal, advertising appeal and purchase intention, suggesting that respondents classified images as either sensing or intuiting in type and responded as such. The implication was that advertisements containing images tailored to match the dominant perception preference style of a target group would have greater appeal to this type (LaBarbera et al.1998). Several researchers have studied the effect of attitude towards an advertisement on the attitude towards a product/brand and, importantly, its indirect effect on future predicted behaviour (see Mitchell, 1986). Individuals can draw inferences about the advertised brand based on the visual imagery and these may result in the formation or change of beliefs about the advertised brand. A positive or negative evaluation of the visual element affects brand attitudes that are a function of attitude towards the advertisement. Mitchell s (1986) study did, however, not explore the effects 2
of the visual and copy components of advertisements separately, nor the potential congruence between an individual s perceiving preference and attitude towards an advertising image. Further psychological insight is offered by the idea that a consumer s cognitive activity can be altered by the presence of a dominant picture in a print advertisement, while an individual is viewing the advertisement (Edell and Staelin,1983). In their study, lack of brand evaluation was exhibited by subjects viewing unframed pictorial advertisements. The differences in processing of advertisements were shown to have a mediating effect on the individual s brand attitudes and purchase intentions. Adding to this, Russell (2001) showed a link between an individual s MBTI personality type, preferred processing style and interpretations of photographs. This suggests that an individual s response to imagery in print advertising should show congruence with a consumer s preferred processing style has been shown, a proposition supported by LaBarbera et al.(1998). In addition, attitudes towards advertisements have been shown to have a partial mediating effect on attitudes towards a brand/product and intention to purchase (Mitchell and Olson 1981, Mitchell 1986, MacKenzie et al. 1986). Compounding this, in research with primarily pictorial print advertisement, framing of the picture has been shown to have a positive effect on brand/product evaluations and recall (Edell and Staelin 1983). Since the LaBarbera et al.(1998) study, there has been no further research in the public domain specifically testing congruence between image type and an individual s preferred processing style in print advertisements. In view of the limited research evidence supporting congruence between Jung s perceiving dimension and image type in advertising, the need for further research was indicated. As Evanschitzy et al. (2007) suggest, practitioners should put little stock in the outcomes of one-shot studies. There is a concern that hardly any of results reported in marketing journals have been successfully replicated. This study offers a representation with extension consistent with Hubbard and Armstrong s (1994) definition ie it is a duplication of a previously published empirical research project that serves to investigate the generalisability of earlier research findings. This study was conducted a decade on, in the UK and using a convenience sampling technique to deliver a sample representative of the UK population in terms of perceiving preference split. Three categories were chosen to represent a range of products orange juice, mattresses and retirement savings plans, consistent with the original study but omitting the fourth category as preliminary research showed a gender bias. Hypotheses The aim is to investigate the extent to which congruence between consumer personality-type perceiving preference and image type in print advertisements is supported. For robustness, the LaBarbera et al. (1998) hypotheses were reversed: H1 Individuals show no preference for images and advertisements consistent with their information processing styles. Images and advertisements perceived as realistic, concrete and informative will not be evaluated more (less) favourably by individuals with sensor (intuitive) typologies compared to advertisements perceived as imaginative, conceptual and abstract. H2 Individuals show no preference to purchase products consistent with their information processing styles. Advertisements perceived as realistic, concrete and informative will not elicit higher (lower) purchase intentions by individuals with sensor (intuitive) typologies compared to advertisements that are perceived as imaginative, conceptual and abstract. 3
Methodology This study was conducted in three phases: an expert panel, a pre-test study and a main study over an 8-week period. The data collection methods, instruments and objectives for each phase are summarised in Table 1. Table 1: Summary of data collection methods, instruments and objectives Phase Objective Stimulus Material Outline and Instruments Expert panel Pre-test Main study To select 18 images for the pre-test To filter out the strongest S and N image for each product category, 6 in total To determine respondent s perceiving preferences To test the hypotheses by rating image appeal, overall advertisement appeal and intention to purchase To determine each subject s S/N perceiving preference Mixed selection of images for three product categories both product, and conceptual 18 images selected by the expert panel - 6 per product category Pre-test vocabulary and short MBTI questionnaire A total of 6 images 2 per product category with 3 shown to each subject Questionnaire to rate image appeal, overall advert appeal and intention to purchase Pre-test key words Short MBTI questionnaire 3 panel members (trained to level B psychometrics) selected 3 sensing and 3 intuitive images for each of the 3 product categories giving 18 images (3+3 X 3) 30 respondents selected word associations for the images from the pre-test vocabulary (see Appendix 2). S/N perceiving preference for pre-test sample assessed 104 adults allocated perceiving preference based on key words and then rated image appeal, overall advert appeal and intention to purchase on a Likert scale 1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree Analysis and findings Results of the pre test The results of the pre test to classify the images confirmed the judgment of the expert panel (see Table 2), validating the visual stimulus material. Table 2: Summary of image classification results Product category Ad Type Image description 1 Mean Value 2 No. of subject scores Standard deviation Orange juice Sensor (S) Glass with oranges 0.30 47 2.39 Intuitive (N) Sunburst -1.26 57 1.92 Retirement Plan Sensor (S) Piggy bank 2.00 57 2.24 Intuitive (N) Crystal ball -0.91 47 1.99 Mattress Sensor(S) Bedroom 0.57 51 2.34 Intuitive(N) Moonlight scene -2.38 53 1.69 1 See appendix 3 for images 2 Sensing minus intuitive key word score There was no statistically significant interaction effect between perceiving type (sensor/intuitive) on image classification F(1, 308) = 0.367, p=0.55. 4
Main Study The sample of 104 respondents comprised 63% sensors and 37% intuitives, categorised by the number of sensing and intuitive words selected (see Appendix 2). The sample was asked to rate the images on the items shown in Appendix 4 using a Likert scale. To check reliability and internal consistency in the three items of the intention to purchase scale and the two items of the advertising appeal scale, Cronbach alpha tests were run with results of 0.85 and 0.9 respectively. No statistically significant effects were found for overall advertisement appeal, image appeal and purchase intentions between sensing and intuitive subject groups at aggregate image level. To assess the potential for congruence between image type and subject type, more detailed analysis with 6 two-way between group ANOVAs conducted on the 6 individual measures of image appeal, advertisement appeal (x2) and purchase intention (x3) for each of the 6 advertising images. These results of are summarised in tables 3-5. Throughout all Levene s homogeneity of variance was not violated. No significant interaction effects were seen between the independent variables of subject groups and images and no significant main effects were seen for the subject groups. Table 3: Image appeal ratings Advertisement type Mean rating by (S/N) sensor subjects Orange juice (S) 3.52 Orange juice (N) 3.94 Retirement plan (S) 3.00 Retirement plan (N) 4.87 Mattress (S) 3.48 Mattress (N) 3.10 **p >0.01 Table 4: Advertisement appeal ratings Advertisement type Mean rating by sensor subjects Orange juice (S) 3.99 Orange juice (N) 4.45 Retirement plan (S) 3.14 Retirement plan (N) 9.16 Mattress (S) 3.35 Mattress (N) 3.15 *** p>0.01 Mean rating by intuitive subjects 3.44 4.17 3.25 4.88 4.00 3.00 Mean rating by intuitive subjects 3.66 4.96 3.04 5.00 3.67 3.16 F-value Significance (p-value) 0.18 0.68 ** 0.17 0.70** 0.42 0.34** F-value Significance (p-value) 0.07 0.21*** 0.41 0.32*** 0.31 0.61*** The reported means and low F values indicate no significant difference between group and within group differences in the mean scores providing support for H1. Table 5: Intention to purchase ratings Advertisement type Mean rating by sensor subjects Orange juice (S) 4.56 Orange juice (N) 4.74 Retirement plan (S) 4.21 Retirement plan (N) Mattress (S) Mattress (N) *** p>0.01 5.39 4.29 4.17 Mean rating by intuitive subjects 4.29 5.26 4.43 5.48 4.66 4.42 F-value Significance (p-value) 0.21 0.17*** 0.40 0.80*** 0.42 0.82*** 5
The reported means and low F values indicate insignificant between group and within group differences in the mean scores providing support for H2. There was no significant difference in intention to purchase behaviour between sensor and intuitive subject groups across all images and product categories. No significant differences were found between the sensor and intuitive subject groups for any image on the individual measures of image appeal, overall advertisement appeal and intention to purchase supporting both H1 and H2. Both hypotheses were supported with individuals showing no preference for images and advertisements nor to purchase products presented in a form consistent with the information processing styles that characterise their personality types. Discussion and Implications The findings of this study do not support a congruency theory between perceiving-type preference and visual image type in advertising. No significant differences were found between the sensor and intuitive subject groups for any image on the individual measures of image appeal, overall advertisement appeal and intention to purchase. No cause and effect relationship was shown. Subjects were shown to reliably categorise visual images displayed alone and in advertisements as either sensor or intuitive in type, suggesting the sensor/intuitive classification system may reliably offer a method for evaluation of visual images displayed alone and in advertisements. This categorisation was not affected by individuals perceiving preference as no significant differences were found on evaluation of images between the sensor and intuitive groups. From the findings of this study, the principal implication is that perceiving type preference information cannot reliably be used to understand and predict how consumers will interpret and respond to imagery in advertisements. Using visual images that are consistent with perceivingtype preference has no effect on advertising evaluations. However this study does not take account of the interaction effects between the different dimensions and to some extent seeks parsimony where complexity might be helpful. The results of this study and the limited previous support for a congruence theory between Jungian perceiving preference and visual image type indicate that practical application of this partially supported theory is not recommended. This study emphasises the importance of replication research as this close application of the original delivers diametrically opposing results. Geography and time scale do not provide an explanation for this since the MBTI is stable over time and differences in the frequency of the S/N perceiving types are accounted for in the research design. The credibility of academic research is brought into question by this lack of generalisability and should reasonably create scepticism in the minds of practitioners. 6
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Appendix 1: The four preferences of the MBTI (Source: Myers and McCaulley 1985) Index preferences between EI E Extraversion or I Introversion SN S Sensing perception N Intuitive perception TF T Thinking judgment F Feeling judgment JP J Judgment P Perception Affects choices as to Whether to direct perception judgment mainly on the outer world (E) or mainly on the world of ideas (I) Which kind of perception is preferred when one needs or wishes to perceive Which kind of judgment to trust when one needs or wishes to make a decision Whether to deal with the outer world in the judging (J) attitude (using T or F) or in the perceptive (P) attitude (using S or N) 8
Appendix 2: Sensor/ Intuitive Key Words Source: adapted by author from LaBarbera 1998 (Briggs and Briggs-Myers 1998, Myers 1992, Myers and MacCaulley 1985) Sensor vocabulary Realistic Useful Practical Down-to-earth Actual Factual Concrete Here and now Informative Intuitive vocabulary Speculative Fantasy Imaginative Head-in-the-clouds Possible Innovative Abstract Future Inspirational 9
Appendix 3: Advertising Images Sensing Intuitive 10
Appendix 4 Variables and Related Items (Bruner et al. 2001) Variable Advertisement appeal Image appeal Intention to purchase Item I like this advert I imagined what it would be like to use the product advertised The image of this product appealed to me. I would like to try this product. I would buy this product if I happened to see it I would actively seek out this product to buy it 11