Comparison of the Effectiveness of Training Metacognitive Skills and

ORIGINAL ARTICLE Received 18 March. 2015 Accepted 24 September. 2015 Vol. 4, Issue 4, 224-231, 2015 Academic Journal of Psychological Studies ISSN: 2333-0821 ajps.worldofresearches.com Comparison of the Effectiveness of Training Metacognitive Skills and Positive Thinking Strategies on Happiness Promotion in Pregnant Women Sanaz Baharestani *, Dr. Naser Amini and Dr. Ezat Deyreh Department of Clinical Psychology, Bushehr Branch, Islamic Azad University, Bushehr, Iran. A B S T R A C T This study aimed to evaluate and compare training metacognitive skills and positive thinking strategies in terms of happiness promotion among pregnant women in Bushehr. The statistical population included 200 pregnant women who attended health centers in Bushehr, among which 80 pregnant women were randomly selected and assigned into groups of experimental and control. Oxford Happiness Questionnaire was used as a research tool. In this experimental study, pretest - posttest was used for the control group. After the random selection of experimental and control groups, pre-test was conducted, then experimental intervention 1 (training metacognitive skills) and experimental intervention 2 (training positive thinking strategies) were provided to experimental groups and posttest was conducted after completion of training programs. For data analysis, multivariate analysis of covariance showed that there is a significant difference between training metacognitive skills and positive thinking strategies in terms of happiness promotion in pregnant women in Bushehr (p<0.01). So, training metacognitive skills and positive thinking strategies is effective on happiness promotion. Keywords: Happiness, Metacognitive skills, Positive Thinking Strategies, Pregnant Women. INTRODUCTION Happiness is a sense of joy and a sense of continuity of life happily. The feeling is not achieved by obtaining too much and outstanding things, but instead, little pleasures can make us happier 1. According to the World Health Organization, the concept of health is the existence of aspects of psychological and social well-being. The concept of psychological well-being is often used synonymously with the concept of happiness and involves a variety of cognitive and emotional factors 2. Training positive thinking strategies can be effective on controlling and changing negative or false thoughts and can turn overwhelming anxiety and fear to hope and positive efforts for improvement so that in this way people can use their *. Corresponding Author To cite this article: Baharestani, S., Amini, N., Deyreh, E. (2015). Comparison of the Effectiveness of Training Metacognitive Skills and Positive Thinking Strategies on Happiness Promotion in Pregnant Women. Academic Journal of Psychological Studies, 4 (4), 224-231. October, 2015 224

Comparison of the Effectiveness of Training Metacognitive Skills and energy for wise interactions and positive emotions, not for irrational and wrong thoughts, and take the opportunity to develop their mental growth 3. Metacognitive skills have great effects on emotional disorders, especially anxiety and depression. Happiness is one of the important areas which has received considerable attention in positive psychology research. The prevalence of depression in Iranian pregnant women is between 25% and 46.5% 4. Depression and decreased happiness during pregnancy can bring much harm to pregnant women and their children 5. Metacognitive skills are referred to coordinate and manage strategies employed for thinking and problem solving through the use of self-awareness. Due to the prevalence of decreased happiness in pregnant women, lack of its recognition and the great effects it has on mother, baby, mother-child relationship and even couple s relationship and also given that psychological factors contribute greatly to this disorder, their prevention and treatment are very necessary 6. Therefore, this research attempts to investigate the effectiveness of training metacognitive skills and positive thinking strategies to promote happiness. The main research question is whether training metacognitive skills and positive thinking strategies is effective to promote happiness in pregnant women. METHODOLOGY This was a causal-comparative study in which Oxford Happiness Questionnaire was used. Oxford Happiness Questionnaire has 29 items and measures the amount of individual happiness. The test consists of 29 multiplechoice items that each item is scored as follows: (A) 0, (B) 1, (C) 2 and (D) 3. The highest score that the subjects can get in this comparison is 87 representing the highest happiness and the lowest score is zero indicating the subjects dissatisfaction of life and depression. The normal score of this test is between 40 and 42. First, pregnant women who attended health centers in Bushehr were selected and randomly assigned into four groups (two experimental groups and two control groups). Pretest was conducted for four groups (by Oxford Happiness Test) before implementing training positive thinking strategies and metacognitive skills. Experimental groups, each consisting of 20 pregnant women, were divided into two groups: the experimental group (1) was trained in 10 sessions for positive thinking strategies (twice a week), each session about 60 minutes, the experimental group (2) was trained in 10 sessions for metacognitive skills (twice a week), each session about 60 minutes. At the end of sessions, posttest was conducted for the four groups. A summary of training sessions for positive thinking strategies and metacognitive skills is presented in the following research proposal diagram. Table 1. Research proposal diagram Groups Pretest Independent variable Posttest First test T 1 X 1 T 2 Second test T 1 X 2 T 2 First control T 1 - T 2 Second control T 1 - T 2

Baharestani et al., 2015 Training positive thinking strategies was conducted during 10 sessions (two sessions per week) using a book titled Positive thinking and applied positivism by Susan Quilliam and a book titled Negative thinking by John Roger and Peter McWilliams. A summary of training sessions for positive thinking strategies is as follows (Tables 2 and 3). Table 2. Summary of training sessions for positive thinking strategies Session Subject Content First General discussion about optimism and positive thinking, explanation the way of holding sessions (briefing) Creating mental readiness to reinforce positive and healthy thinking in subjects Second Positive thinking meaning Understanding the concepts of positive thinking Third Self-awareness and self-knowledge Strengthening self-worth feeling and increasing self-respect in subjects Fourth Realization of one s own potential abilities Recognizing the talents, abilities and inherent emotions and discovering the strengths and weaknesses and improving potential abilities of subjects Fifth How do pessimism and negativity affect us? Subjects will become familiar with the harmful effects of negativity and pessimism Sixth The effect of positive and negative self-talks on feeling and behavior in the form of example Subjects familiarity with the effect of negative automatic thoughts to increase positive self-talks about themselves through replacing negative thoughts with positive thoughts Seventh Positivism and discovering strengths by group discussion method and providing additional activities for subjects Facilitating the creation of positive attitude toward self and others Eighth Love and friendship The importance of positivism in interpersonal skills and positive interactions Ninth Tenth Physical health, social relations and positive thinking Summary of discussions and asking subjects views on the issues raised Maintaining health and its effect on subjects positivism Reviewing past sessions, acknowledging the members and implementing post-test Table 3. Summary of training sessions for metacognitive skills Session Subject Content First General discussion about metacognitive skills, explanation the way of holding sessions Creating mental readiness to reinforce healthy thinking in subjects Second Metacognitive model Explanation metacognitive model Third Training attention Familiarity with training attention technique Fourth Training attention technique Implementation of training attention October, 2015 226

Comparison of the Effectiveness of Training Metacognitive Skills and technique Fifth Training detached mindfulness Familiarity with detached mindfulness techniques Sixth Detached mindfulness techniques Training meta-guiding techniques and suppression - anti suppression test Seventh Training detached mindfulness techniques Training free association techniques and assignments Eighth Training detached mindfulness techniques Training verbal loop technique and playful child metaphor Ninth Training detached mindfulness techniques Training passing clouds metaphor, train passenger metaphor and imagination Tenth Receiving feedback from training sessions and their effect on the group members, practicing techniques learned Reviewing assignments and answering questions and problems, expressing the need for using the skills learned In this study, descriptive methods were used, including frequency distribution tables, mean and standard deviation and inferential statistical methods were also used, including multivariate covariance, analysis of variance and SPSS software. RESULTS The mean values and standard deviation of negative body image and happiness in pretest and posttest in experimental and control groups are presented in the following tables: Table 4. Mean distribution and standard deviation of happiness in experimental and control groups Pretest Posttest Mean Standard deviation Mean Standard deviation Metacognitive experimental group 46.80 2.40 55.05 4.51 Positive thinking experimental group 47.85 3.54 51.15 4.48 Control group 1 45.60 3.70 46.49 2.72 Control group 2 45.80 3.31 46.10 4.93 Total 46.51 3.93 49.79 5.52 The results show the mean and standard deviation of happiness in pregnant women in pretest and posttest in experimental and control groups. The mean of happiness in the pretest of metacognitive control group was 46.80 with standard deviation 2.40 and in the posttest the mean was 55.15 with standard deviation 4.51. The mean of happiness in the pretest of positive thinking group was 47.85 with standard deviation 3.54 and in the posttest the mean was 51.15 with standard deviation 4.48. The mean of happiness in the pretest of control group (1) was 45.80 with standard deviation 3.31 and in the posttest the mean was 46.49 with standard deviation 2.72. The mean of happiness in the pretest of control group (2) was 45.80 with standard deviation 3.31 and in the posttest the mean was 46.10 with standard deviation 4.93.

Baharestani et al., 2015 Table 5. Mean and standard deviation of factors between the subjects No. Mean Standard deviation Happiness Metacognitive experimental group 20 55.050 4.51 Positive thinking experimental group 20 51.15 4.49 Control group 1 20 46.85 2.72 Control group 2 20 46.10 4.93 Total 40 49.79 5.52 The results show the mean and standard deviation of happiness in pregnant women. Table 6. Factors between the subjects No. Mean Standard deviation Experimental group 20 55.050 4.51 Control group 20 64.85 3.71 Total 40 50.95 5.55 Table 7. Determining the effect of factors between subjects Total sum of df Mean of F Significance Partial η 2 squares squares level Modified model 673.278 2 336.639 23.652 0.001 0.561 Intercept 173.534 1 173.534 12.192 0.001 0.248 Pretest 0.878 1 0.878 0.062 0.805s 0.002 Group 604.959 1 604.959 42.504 0.001 0.535 Error 526.622 37 14.233 Total 105036.00 40 The results showed that the effect of training metacognitive skills was significant in happiness promotion after adjusting the effect of pretest (Partial η 2 =0.535, P=0.001, F(1,37)=13.38). Eta coefficient showed that 53.5% of happiness promotion variance can be explained by training metacognitive skills. Table 8. Estimation of effect size of training metacognitive skills on happiness promotion B Standard error t Significance level Confidence level at 95% Partial η 2 Lower limit Upper limit Intercept 43.513 13.460 3.233 0.003 16.241 70.786 0.220 Pretest 0.073 0.295 0.248 0.805 0.524 0.670 0.002 Experimental group 8.112 1.244 6.519 0.001 5.591 10.633 0.535 Parameter estimation shows that the effect size of training metacognitive skills was significant on happiness promotion at the level of P<0.001. The effect is between 5.59 and 10.63 increase unit. October, 2015 228

Comparison of the Effectiveness of Training Metacognitive Skills and Table 9. Factors between the subjects Groups No. Mean Standard deviation Experimental group 20 51.15 4.49 Control group 20 46.10 4.93 Total 40 48.63 5.31 Table 10. Determining the effect of factors between the subjects Total sum of df Mean of F Significance Partial η 2 squares squares level Modified model 325.470 2 162.735 7.780 0.002 0.296 Intercept 578.489 1 578.489 28.088 0.001 0.432 Pretest 70.445 1 70.445 3.368 0.075 0.083 Group 194.709 1 194.709 9.309 0.004 0.201 Error 773.905 37 20.916 Total 95675.00 40 The results showed that the effect of training positive thinking strategies was significant on happiness promotion after adjusting the effect of pretest (Partial η 2 =0.201, P=0.001, F(1,37)=9.31). Eta coefficient showed that 20.1% of happiness promotion variance can be explained by training positive thinking strategies. Table 11. Estimation of the effect size of training positive thinking strategies on happiness promotion Parameter B Standard error t Significa nce level Confidence level at 95% Partial η 2 Lower limit Upper limit Intercept 33.918 6.716 5.050 0.001 23.310 47.527 0.408 Pretest 0.266 0.145 1.835 0.075 0.028 0.560 0.083 Experimental group 4.505 1.476 3.051 0.004 1.513 7.496 0.201 Parameter estimation shows that the effect size of training positive thinking strategies was significant on happiness promotion. The effect is between 1.51 and 7.50 increase unit. CONCLUSION Comparison between the groups in terms of happiness show that there is a significant difference between metacognitive experiment group and positive thinking experimental group and control groups 1 and 2 with confidence level 99%. A significant difference was also observed in terms of happiness between positive thinking experimental group and metacognitive experimental group and control groups 1 and 2. But no significant difference was found in terms of happiness between control groups 1 and 2.

Baharestani et al., 2015 Other studies also found that positive thinking people evaluate their skills properly, especially on their job, and remember positive events more than negative ones and perform better for decision-making. Training positive thinking strategies can be effective on controlling and changing negative or false thoughts and can turn overwhelming anxiety and fear to hope and positive efforts for improvement so that in this way people can use their energy for wise interactions and positive emotions, not for irrational and wrong thoughts, and take the opportunity to develop their mental growth. These trainings seem to be very useful for people to strengthen and improve their positive communication with themselves, positive relationships with others and life (the world) and also increase their self-esteem and help them to better understand themselves and be curious about themselves and the world. The effect of training metacognitive skills is clearly consistent with the view that direct modification of attentional processes can lead to simultaneous changes in dysfunctional beliefs. The effect is clearly related to the dynamic view of cognition in psychological disorders. Several mechanisms may underlie the clinical effectiveness of attention control training, including decreased self-focused attention, discontinued worry and rumination-based processing strategies, increased executive control over processing and attention and process reinforcement with metacognitive method. The results showed that the effect of training metacognitive skills is significant on happiness promotion and 53.5% of happiness promotion variance can be explained by training metacognitive skills. So the effect size of training metacognitive skills is significant on happiness promotion, and this hypothesis was confirmed and in terms of happiness a significant difference was observed between experimental and control groups. The results showed that the effect of training positive thinking strategies is significant on happiness promotion after adjusting the effect of pretest and 20.1% of happiness promotion variance can be explained by training positive thinking strategies. So, it can be concluded that the effect size of training positive thinking strategies is significant on happiness promotion. Comparisons between groups showed that there is a significant difference between experimental and control groups in terms of happiness and the hypothesis was confirmed. Studies show that for increasing happiness various variables are effective, such as environmental conditions, individual s genetic structure, and the development of behaviors that lead to more interactions in social life. Identification and use of internal capacities and positive thinking are some strategies that successfully increase happiness permanently. October, 2015 230

Comparison of the Effectiveness of Training Metacognitive Skills and Positive thinking people evaluate their skills properly, especially on their job, and remember positive events more than negative ones and perform better for decision-making, they are optimistic, hopeful, healthier and happier, and their immune systems work better. They deal better with stress using the most effective coping strategies, re-evaluating and problem solving. They also actively avoid stressful life events and build better social support networks around themselves. They have healthier life styles which protect them against disease, and in the case of disease they will follow medical advice better. REFERENCES 1. Argyle, Michael (2001), Psychology of Happiness, translated by Masoud Gohari Anaraki and Hassan Palahang, Hamid Taher Neshat Doost, Masoud Gohari Anaraki and Fatemeh Bahrami, (2004), Jahad Daneshgahi, Vol II. 2. Eysenck, Michael, (1990), Always Be Happy, translated by Zahra Jelonegar, (2008), Nasle-noandish-publications. 3. Chapman, Elwood, (1988), Positive attitude, translated by Fahimeh Nazari, (2005): Alborz Publications. 4. W. Santrock, John, (2003), Psychology, translated by Mehrdad Firoozbakht, (2004). First edition: Rasa Publications. 5. Roger and McWilliams, John and Peter, (1991), Negative thinking, translated by Mehdi gharachedaghi, (1991), Shabahang Publications. 6. Saif, Aliakbar, (2008), Psychology of learning and training, Doran Publications.