SECOND EDITION Evolutionary Psychology The New Science of the Mind David M. Buss University of Texas at Austin Boston New York San Francisco Mexico City Montreal Toronto London Madrid Munich Paris Hong Kong Singapore Tokyo Cape Town Sydney
BRIEF CONTENTS PART ONE* Foundations of Evolutionary Psychology 1 1 The Scientific Movements Leading to Evolutionary Psychology 2 2 The New Science of Evolutionary Psychology 36 PART T WO Problems of Survival 69 3 Combating the Hostile Forces of Nature: Human Survival Problems 70 PART THREE Challenges of Sex and Mating 103 4 Women's Long-Term Mating Strategies 104 5 Men's Long-Term Mating Strategies 135 6 Short-Term Sexual Strategies 163 PART FOUR* Challenges of Parenting and Kinship 187 7 Problems of Parenting 188 8 Problems of Kinship 220 PART FIVE Problems of Group Living 251 9 Cooperative Alliances 252 10 Aggression and Warfare 280 11 Conflict between the Sexes 311 12 Status, Prestige, and Social Dominance 344 PART SIX An Integrated Psychological Science 371 13 Toward a Unified Evolutionary Psychology 372
J Preface xix PART ONE Foundations of Evolutionary Psychology 1 1 The Scientific Movements Leading to Evolutionary Psychology 2 Landmarks in the History of Evolutionary Thinking 3 Evolution before Darwin 3 Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection 4 Darwin's Theory of Sexual Selection 6 The Role of Natural and Sexual Selection in Evolutionary Theory 8 The Modern Synthesis: Genes and Paniculate Inheritance 10 The Ethology Movement 11 The Inclusive Fitness Revolution 13 Clarifying Adaptation and Natural Selection 15 Trivers's Seminal Theories 17 The Sociobiology Controversy 18 Common Misunderstandings about Evolutionary Theory 19 Misunderstanding 1: Human Behavior Is Genetically Determined 19 Misunderstanding 2: If It's Evolutionary, We Can't Change It 19 Misunderstanding 3: Current Mechanisms Are Optimally Designed 20 Milestones in the Origins of Modern Humans 21 BOX 1.1 Out of Africa versus Multiregional Origins: The Origins of Modern Humans 25 Landmarks in the Field of Psychology 27 Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory 27 William James and the Psychology of Instincts 27 The Rise of Behaviorism 28 The Astonishing Discoveries of Cultural Variability 29 The Garcia Effect, Prepared Fears, and the Decline of Radical Behaviorism 30 Peering into the Black Box: The Cognitive Revolution 31 ix
Summary 33 Suggested Readings 35 The New Science of Evolutionary Psychology 36 The Origins of Human Nature 37 Three Theories of the Origins of Complex Adaptive Mechanisms 37 The Three Products of Evolution 38 Levels of Evolutionary Analysis in Evolutionary Psychology 42 The Core of Human Nature: Fundamentals of Evolved Psychological Mechanisms 49 All Species Have a Nature 49 Definition of an Evolved Psychological Mechanism 50 Important Properties of Evolved Psychological Mechanisms 53 Methods for Testing Evolutionary Hypotheses 58 Comparing Different Species 58 Comparing Males and Females 59 Comparing Individuals within a Species 60 Comparing the Same Individuals in Different Contexts 60 Experimental Methods 61 Sources of Data for Testing Evolutionary Hypotheses 61 Archeological Records 61 Data from Hunter-Gatherer Societies 61 Observations 62 Self-Reports 62 Life-History Data and Public Records 63 Human Products 63 Transcending the Limitations of Single Data Sources 63 Identifying Adaptive Problems 64 Guidance from Modern Evolutionary Theory 64 Guidance from Knowledge of Universal Human Structures 65 Guidance from Traditional Societies 65 Guidance from Paleoarcheology and Paleoanthropology 66 Guidance from Current Mechanisms 66 Guidance from Task Analysis 66 Organization of Adaptive Problems 67 Summary 67 Suggested Readings 68
PART TWO Problems of Survival 69 5 Combating the Hostile Forces of Nature: Human Survival Problems 70 Food Acquisition and Selection 71 Food Selection in Rats 72 Food Selection in Humans 73 Why Humans Like Spices: The Antimicrobial Hypothesis 74 Why Humans Like to Drink Alcohol: An Evolutionary Hangover? 75 Sickness in Pregnant Women: The Embryo Protection Hypothesis 76 The Hunting Hypothesis 78 The Gathering Hypothesis 82 Comparing the Hunting and Gathering Hypotheses 84 The Scavenging Hypothesis 84 Adaptations to Gathering arid Hunting: Sex Differences in Specific Spatial Abilities 86 Finding a Place to Live: Shelter and Landscape Preferences 87 The Savanna Hypothesis 88 Combating Predators and Other Environmental Dangers: Fears, Phobias, Anxieties, and "Evolutionary Memories" 90 Most Common Human Fears 91 Children's Antipredator Adaptations 94 BOX 3.1 The Adaptive Conservation Hypothesis of Fears 95 Combating Disease 96 Are Humans Programmed to Die? 97 The Theory of Senescence 97 The Puzzle of Suicide 98 Summary 100 Suggested Readings 101 PART THREE Challenges of Sex and Mating 103 4 Women's Long-Term Mating Strategies 104 Theoretical Background for the Evolution of Mate Preferences 105 Asexual versus Sexual Reproduction 105 Parental Investment and Sexual Selection 106 Mate Preferences as Evolved Psychological Mechanisms 107
Xll CONTENTS The Content of Women's Mate Preferences 109 Preference for Economic Resources 110 Preference for Good Financial Prospects 111 Preference for High Social Status 114 Preference for Older Men 116 Preference for Ambition and Industriousness 117 Preference for Dependability and Stability 118 Preference for Athletic Prowess 119 Preference for Good Health and Physical Appearance 120 Love and Commitment 123 Preference for Willingness to Invest in Children 124 Context Effects on Women's Mate Preferences 126 Effects of Women's Personal Resources on Mate Preferences 126 Effects of Temporal Context on Women's Mate Preferences 128 Effects of Menstrual Cycle on' Mate Preferences 128 Effects of Women's Mate Value on Mate Preferences 129 How Women's Mate Preferences Affect Actual Mating Behavior 130 Women's Responses to Men's Personal Ads 131 Women's Marriages to Men High in Occupational Status 131 Women's Marriages to Men Who Are Older 132 Summary 132 BOX 4.1 What about Lesbian Sexual Orientation? 134 Suggested Readings 134 Men's Long-Term Mating Strategies 135 Theoretical Background for the Evolution of Men's Mate Preferences 135 Why Men Might Benefit from Commitment and Marriage 135 The Problem of Assessing a Woman's Fertility or Reproductive Value 136 The Content of Men's Mate Preferences 138 Preference for Youth 138 Evolved Standards of Physical Beauty 142 Preference for Body Fat and the Critical Waist-to-Hip Ratio 145 BOX 5.1 Computer-Generated Evolution of Faces 146 Sex Differences in the Importance of Physical Appearance 148 Do Men Have a Preference for Ovulating Women? 149 Solutions to the Problem of Paternity Uncertainty 150 Context Effects on Men's Mating Behavior 154 BOX 5.2 What about Male Homosexuality? 155
Xiii Men in Positions of Power 156 Context Effects from Viewing Attractive Models 157 Effect of Men's Preferences on Actual Mating Behavior 158 Men's Responses to Women's Personal Ads 158 Age Preferences and Marital Decisions 158 Effect of Men's Mate Preferences on Women's Attraction Tactics 159 Summary 161 Suggested Readings 162 Short-Term Sexual Strategies 163 Theories of Men's Short-Term Mating 163 Adaptive Benefits for Men of Short-Term Mating 164 Potential Costs of Short-Term Mating for Men 164 BOX 6.1 Functions versus Beneficial Effects of Short-Term Mating 165 Adaptive Problems Men Must Solve When Pursuing Short-Term Mating 165 Evidence for an Evolved Short-Term Mating Psychology 167 Physiological Evidence for Short-Term Mating 167 Psychological Evidence for Short-Term Mating 169 Behavioral Evidence of Short-Term Mating 174 Women's Short-Term Mating 175 Evidence for Women's Short-Term Mating 176 Hypotheses about the Adaptive Benefits to Women of Short-Term Mating 177 Costs to Women of Short-Term Mating 179 Empirical Tests of Hypothesized Benefits to Women 180 Context Effects on Short-Term Mating 182 Individual Differences in Short-Term Mating 182 Other Contexts Likely to Affect Short-Term Mating 183 Summary 185 Suggested Readings 186 PART FOUR Challenges of Parenting and Kinship 187 7 Problems of Parenting 188 Why Do Mothers Provide More Parental Care Than Fathers? 190
The Paternity Uncertainty Hypothesis 191 The Abandonability Hypothesis 191 The Mating Opportunity Cost Hypothesis 192 An Evolutionary Perspective on Parental Care 193 Genetic Relatedness to Offspring 194 Offspring's Ability to Convert Parental Care into Reproductive Success 202 Alternative Uses of Resources Available for Investment in Children 206 The Theory of Parent-Offspring Conflict 212 Mother-Offspring Conflict In Utero 214 The Oedipal Complex Revisited 215 BOX 7.1 Killing Parents and the Asymmetry of Valuing Parents and Children 217 Summary 217 Suggested Readings 219 8 Problems of Kinship 220 Theory and Implications of Inclusive Fitness 221 Hamilton's Rule 221 Theoretical Implications of Hamilton's Rule 222 Empirical Findings that Support the Implications of Inclusive Fitness Theory 226 Alarm Calling in Ground Squirrels 227 Patterns of Helping in the Lives of Los Angeles Women 228 Life-or-Death Helping among Humans 229 Genetic Relatedness and Emotional Closeness: Is Blood Thicker Than Water? 231 Kinship and Survival 232 Patterns of Inheritance Who Leaves Wealth to Whom? 232 Investment by Grandparents 235 BOX 8.1 Investment by Aunts and Uncles 240 Sex Differences in the Importance of Kin Relations 241 A Broader Perspective on the Evolution of the Family 242 The Dark Side of Families 246 Summary 248 Suggested Readings 250
XV PART FIVE Problems of Group Living 251 Cooperative Alliances 252 The Evolution of Cooperation 252 The Problem of Altruism 252 A Theory of Reciprocal Altruism 253 Tit for Tat 254 BOX 9.1 Strategies for Promoting Cooperation 256 Examples of Cooperation in Nature 257 Food Sharing in Vampire Bats 257 Reciprocity among Nonhuman Primates 258 Chimpanzee Politics 259 Social Contract Theory 260 The Detection of Prospective Altruists 265 The Psychology of Friendship 267 Costs and Benefits of Friendship 273 Cooperative Coalitions 276 Summary 277 Suggested Readings 279 Xll Aggression and Warfare 280 Aggression as a Solution to Adaptive Problems 281 Coopt the Resources of Others 281 Defend against Attack 282 Inflict Costs on Intrasexual Rivals 283 Negotiate Status and Power Hierarchies 283 Deter Rivals from Future Aggression 283 Deter Long-Term Mates from Sexual Infidelity 284 The Context-Specificity of Aggression 284 Why Are Men More Violently Aggressive Than Women? 285 Empirical Evidence for Distinct Adaptive Patterns of Aggression 287 Evidence for Sex Differences in Same-Sex Aggression 288 Contexts Triggering Men's Aggression against Men 293 Contexts Triggering Women's Aggression against Women 295 Contexts Triggering Men's Aggression against Women 296
Contexts Triggering Women's Aggression against Men 297 Warfare 297 BOX 10.1 Yanomamo Warfare 298 Do Humans Have Evolved Homicide Mechanisms? 306 Summary 308 Suggested Readings 310 1 1 Conflict between the Sexes 311 Strategic Interference Theory 311 Conflict about the Occurrence and Timing of Sex 313 Conflict over Sexual Access 314 Jealous Conflict 325 Sex Differences in Jealousy 326 From Vigilance to Violence: Tactics of Mate Retention 330 Sex Differences in the Use of Mate-Retention Tactics 330 Contexts Influencing Intensity of Mate-Retention Tactics 332 Violence toward Partners 335 Conflict over Access to Resources 338 Causes of Resource Inequality: Women's Mate Preferences and Men's Competitive Tactics 339 B O X 11.1 Are All Men United to Control Women? 340 Summary 340 Suggested Readings 343 Status, Prestige, and Social Dominance 344 The Emergence of Dominance Hierarchies 345 Dominance and Status in Nonhuman Animals 346 Evolutionary Theories of Dominance and Status 348 An Evolutionary Theory of Sex Differences in Status Striving 348 Dominance Theory 354 Social Attention-Holding Theory 356 Determinants of Dominance 359 BOX 12.1 Facial Dominance 361 Self-Esteem as a Status-Tracking Mechanism 364 Strategies of Submissiveness 366
XV11 Summary 368 Suggested Readings 370 PART SIX An Integrated Psychological Science 371 1.5 Toward a Unified Evolutionary Psychology 372 Evolutionary Cognitive Psychology 373 Problem Solving: Heuristics, Biases, and Judgment under Uncertainty 375 The Evolution of Language 381 Evolutionary Social Psychology 384 Capitalizing on Evolutionary Theories about Social Phenomena 385 The Evolution of Moral Emotions 386 The Return of Group Selection as Multilevel Selection Theory 388 Evolutionary Developmental Psychology 389 Theory of Mind Mechanisms 390 Attachment and Life-History Strategies 391 Evolutionary Personality Psychology 394 Alternative Niche Picking or Strategic Specialization 396 Adaptive Assessment of Heritable Qualities 396 Frequency-Dependent Adaptive Strategies 397 Evolutionary Clinical Psychology 399 Causes of Mechanism Failure 400 Evolutionary Insights into Problems Erroneously Thought to Be Dysfunctions 401 Evolutionary Cultural Psychology 404 Evoked Culture 404 Transmitted Culture 406 The Evolution of Art, Fiction, Movies, and Music 407 Toward a Unified Psychology 411 Suggested Readings 412 Bibliography 413 Index 441