Science Stars In this activity, the student will learn about the origin of the scientific method and how noted scientists use it in their research. Background Probably as long as humans have been on earth, they have come up with explanations for the workings of the world around them. In the past, these explanations often centered on the supernatural. For instance, many believed that spirits, whose actions humans may or may not be able to influence, were responsible for nature. Everything from the cause of a disease to the motion of the planets could be accounted for with this explanation without the need for proof. In contrast to this view, modern scientists try to derive explanations based on evidence gained from observation and testing. The method by which answers are sought varies depending on the area studied, but it generally consists of these steps: Make observations Identify a problem Form a hypothesis (a possible explanation for the problem) Test the hypothesis through experimentation Collect and record data from the experiment(s) Draw conclusions based on the experimental results This modern investigative approach, known as the scientific method, did not arise overnight, but evolved over centuries through the efforts of many individuals and groups. One such individual was Hippocrates (hip-pock-kruh-tees), the Father of Medicine. Born in Greece in the 5 th century BC, Hippocrates is important in The RECONSTRUCTORS story for his use of willow bark extract as a pain reliever. As a physician and teacher, Hippocrates championed a rational approach to disease and healing. He contributed greatly to what we today call the scientific method. Instead of thinking of disease as the work of supernatural forces, treatable by magic or witchcraft, Hippocrates looked for natural causes. He believed that the experience gained from his own observations of patients, or from previous medical observations by others, could be used to help diagnose disease and to suggest an appropriate treatment. The following page provides a short synopsis of Hippocrates life and work. The Reconstructors 9 Plaguing Problem
Hippocrates Most people regard the Greek physician Hippocrates (hip-pock-kruh-tees) as the Father of Medicine. Hippocrates was born on the island of Kos (COSE) in about 460 BC and died about 377 BC. Kos was famous for hosting a temple to the Greek god Ascelapius (esk-ah-lap-ee-us), the god of healing and physicians. Men and women suffering from every type of disease came from all over the ancient world to consult the priests of the temple and ask the god for healing. It was not surprising, therefore, that there were also many physicians on Kos to tend the sufferers visiting the shrine. Over time, the physicians of the island developed a reputation for skill in their craft. Certain families of physicians, called Asclepiads (es-kleep-pea-ads) in honor of the god, were particularly renowned for their knowledge. Hippocrates came from such a family and was eventually regarded as the foremost physician in the history of Kos and of the entire ancient Mediterranean world. Hippocrates traveled widely throughout his world, visiting Greece, the islands of the Mediterranean, and Asia Minor (modern day Turkey). He taught many students who later formed a kind of network dedicated to preserving the memory and teachings of their master. There were many books in the ancient world supposedly written by Hippocrates. Historians have identified about seventy such books, of which sixty still exist. Hippocrates wrote some of these, while others were written by his pupils, who then signed Hippocrates name as the author. This was a common practice in the ancient world. Together with the later teachings of a physician named Galen (GAY-len) these writings, called the Hippocratic Corpus or Hippocratic Collection, were the main sources of medical theory for most of Western history. Hippocrates and his pupils believed that the body was a delicate system of balances. Various substances and activities inside a person had to be balanced with each other, and things going on inside the body had to be balanced with things going on outside. When this balance was upset, a person became ill. Hippocratic physicians treated their patients by carefully regulating their diet and exercise and by giving them various kinds of medications that they believed would restore balance. The followers of Hippocrates also believed that climate was important for health and would sometimes recommend that a patient seek a healthier place to live as a way of easing suffering. Hippocrates was very important not only for his medical theories but also for his beliefs about the ways in which a physician should think and act. He held that illness should be regarded as a natural phenomenon, not primarily as something stemming from the wrath of the gods or the meddling of evil spirits (although neither he nor his pupils denied the existence of gods and spirits). He thought that, when confronted with a disease, a doctor should seek out a natural cause and attempt to formulate a cure. For instance, Hippocratic physicians held that epilepsy, which had been known as the sacred disease because the seizures were believed to be due to the touch of divine spirits, was in fact simply a natural disorder of the body. Hippocrates also believed that a doctor should be selflessly dedicated to his patients. He should take solemn oaths never to harm the people in his care. In fact, the motto first do no harm has been widely quoted as Hippocrates first piece of advice to aspiring young doctors. Even today, doctors in the West take a formal series of pledges when they receive their degrees in medicine. These pledges are called the Hippocratic oath. The Reconstructors 10 Plaguing Problem
Learning Objectives The student will: Research the life of a scientist and how his/her work utilized the scientific method. Create a presentation on the scientist. Materials Computer with Internet access and word processing or presentation software Science Stars Student Activity Sheet Poster boards Procedure 1. Prior to the beginning of class, write the steps of the scientific method on the board. 2. Tell students that they will need to make an outline for a new movie. The movie will be based on the life of a scientist and how his/her work utilized the scientific method. 3. Describe the scientific method. 4. State that one person whose work was important in the development of the scientific method was Hippocrates. 5. Identify who Hippocrates was in terms of the Reconstructors web adventure and give an example of how his work contributed to what we now think of as the scientific method. For instance, Hippocrates was able to develop a system by which he could determine which physical symptoms lead to death. This method was a form of evidence-based medicine and the beginning of the scientific method. The Reconstructors 11 Plaguing Problem
6. Hand out the Science Stars Student Activity Sheets and ask each student or group of students to research a scientist. Suggested research subjects are: Dorothy Hodgkin, George Washington Carver, Barbara McClintock, Charles Darwin, Rosalind Franklin, Galileo Galilei, Gertrude Elion, Isaac Newton, Benjamin Banneker, Marie Curie, Francesco Redi, Leonardo davinci, and Percy Julian. 7. Inform students that they will need to present their research outline as a poster or by using presentation software. 8. Have each student or each group make an outline and present it to the class. Next, have the class vote on the best candidate for the full-length movie. Extension Activities History: Create a history of the scientific method timeline. Language Arts: Interview a scientist about his/her work. Social Studies: Research how the scientific method is used in a criminal investigation. Visual Arts: Examine the effect of science on art during the Renaissance. Related Standards National Science Education Standards, Grades 5-8 1. Science Content Standard G: All students should develop understanding of science as a human endeavor. 2. Science Content Standard G: All students should develop understanding of the nature of science. 3. Science Content Standard G: All students should develop understanding of the history of science. Books Scientists and Inventors. 1998. New York: Macmillan Library Reference. Spangenburg, R. & Moser, D. K. 1994. The History of Science from 1946 to the 1990s. New York: Facts on File. National Research Council. 1996. National Science Education Standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. The Reconstructors 12 Plaguing Problem
Web Sites Women in Science http://www.astr.ua.edu/4000ws/ Evolution of the Scientific Method http://urantiabook.org/archive/science/binion1.htm Hippocrates http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/library/historical/artifacts/antiqua/hipp ocrates.cfm The Reconstructors 13 Plaguing Problem
Episode One Debriefing: Student Activity Sheet Science Stars This could be your big break! The famous movie director, Oscar Flick, needs a consultant for his new blockbuster on science. Your job is to make a presentation on the life of a noted individual and how his/her work demonstrates the scientific method. Do the Research Gather information on the person assigned to you in the library and/or using Internet sites and classroom reference materials. Record the source of the information for your bibliography. Find the following about the person: Time period when he or she lived Ideas for which he or she is most well-known Examples of how he or she used steps of the scientific method Events in his/her life Present the Material After all the information is collected, create the outline for a movie on poster boards or by using presentation software. Make certain you cover each of the following: Introduction: Include basic information about the scientist, such as where they were born, their nationality, the area they studied (biology, medicine, botany, etc.), and other interesting facts. Famous Discoveries: Ideas, inventions, discoveries, or awards for which the scientist is famous. Use of the Scientific Method: Explain how they used the scientific method in their research. 1) What problem did they want to solve? 2) What was their hypothesis (possible explanation for the problem)? 3) How did they test their hypothesis? (What experiments did they perform?) 4) How did they collect data? 5) What was their conclusion? Other Life Events: Include unusual or interesting life events. Bibliography: List of the sources for the outline information The Reconstructors 14 Plaguing Problem