How Advertising Slogans

How Advertising Slogans Can Prime Evaluations of Brand Extensions David M. Boush University of Oregon ABSTRACT Different versions of a brand slogan were presented to each of three treatment groups before they evaluated six potential extensions of a fictitious brand. One slogan primed nutrition, one primed spiciness, and the third primed high quality as product attributes. All other product and brand information was held constant. The slogans had a significant effect both on the perceived similarity and on the evaluations of potential brand extensions. The results suggest that there is considerable flexibility in the category of products that a brand represents. Advertising slogans can play an important role in supporting or undermining a brand extension strategy by drawing attention to attributes that the new product either has in common with existing products or that conflict with existing products. 0 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Brand names, established in consumers minds by advertising and product experience, constitute a major asset for many firms (Aaker & Keller, 1990; Kane, 1987; Tauber, 1981, 1988). The attempt to capitalize on this asset by extending the brand name to new products has been a popular growth strategy during the past decade, with brand extensions ranging from Hershey chocolate milk to Harley-Davidson cigarettes. Successful brand extension hinges on a variety of factors, one of which is the ability of the brand name to convey something to consumers that will help to sell the new product. However, a positive evaluation of the Psychology & Marketing Vol. lo(1): 67-78 (JanuaryIFebruary 1993) 0 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. CCC 0742-6046/93/01067-12 67

brand and its products does not necessarily transfer equally to all potential new products. Brand extensions that are judged to be similar to the brand s existing products are evaluated more positively than are less similar products (Boush et al., 1987). Such similarity judgments are likely to go beyond the objective characteristics of the products. For example, consider ketchup as a potential extension of the Gerber brand. The objective characteristics of ketchup (e.g., resemblance to strained vegetables) would seem to make it an ideal Gerber brand extension. However, a consumer s immediate reaction to Gerber ketchup is likely to be negative. Because of the advertising slogan, the new product does not fit the brand at all. The old Gerber slogan babies are our business, our only business brings one particular attribute to mind; Gerber products are for babies. Because ketchup is not for babies it makes a poor Gerber extension. But what would happen if a different attribute of Gerber products, such as purity, were brought to mind? Might Gerber ketchup be a more acceptable brand extension? Research on priming effects suggests that it should. At least, the priming literature suggests that ketchup would be a better brand extension if Gerber s slogan for the last 20 years had been something like the pure foods company. Slogans that prime particular product advantages often limit the product /market either implicity or explicitly. Besides the Gerber slogan, examples include All we make are great copiers (Mita) and Choosey mothers choose Jiff (Jiff peanut butter). Conflict between potential brand extensions and the brand slogan arises because the conditions that exist when a company initiates the slogan can change over time. In the Gerber example, the initial slogan may have helped to differentiate Gerber from Heinz, which made products other than those for babies. When the baby boom ended Gerber needed to look elsewhere for growth (Bronson, 1982). However, the Gerber slogan remained etched in the minds of consumers, priming the idea that Gerber products were for babies only. Priming is a name for the fact that recently and frequently activated ideas come to mind more easily than ideas that are not recently or frequently activated (Fiske & Taylor, 1984, p. 231). The importance of priming has been supported for a variety of cognitive tasks including naming objects or identifying words (e.g., Higgins, Bargh, & Lombardi, 1985; McNamara & Altarriba, 1988; Sudevan & Taylor, 1987; Tabossi, 19881, evaluating people (e.g., Herr, 1986; Higgins, Rholes, & Jones, 1977), and solving problems (e.g., Higgins & Chaires, 1980; White, 1988). In a recent application of priming in advertising, Homer and Kahle (1986) demonstrated a significant effect of priming on message recall. This article examines whether a brand slogan can prime attributes of a brand in such a way as to make some products better (i.e., more acceptable) potential brand extensions than others. 68 BOUSH

One way priming could affect evaluations of potential brand extension is by establishing the category of products that the brand represents. In the Gerber ketchup example, the issue is how an advertiser could facilitate a consumer s categorization of ketchup as a Gerber product. Recent findings suggest that this may be possible. When an object is categorized, not all of its attributes are necessarily activated (Barsalou, 1982, 1983; Medin & Smith, 1984). Instead, some subset of attributes is activated only by the context. Being round is a contextindependent attribute of a basketball, for example, but being able to float is a context-dependent attribute. Context bias (priming) has been demonstrated to alter typicality judgments by making some category members more accessible than others. For example, Roth and Shoben (1983) showed that a statement like the bird walked across the barnyard made chicken more typical of the category bird than is robin. Research on how people are evaluated also has shown that manipulations of the prior context affect the interpretation or retrieval of new information (Fiske & Taylor, 1984). Typically, subjects are presented with personality traits (the prime) and then later are asked to read a description and form an impression of someone. Subjects tend to characterize the person in terms of the traits that were primed (e.g., Bargh & Pietromonaco, 1982; Higgins et al., 1977; Srull & Wyer, 1979). The implication for brand extension is that some product or brand attributes and beliefs may essentially lie dormant in memory until activated. Because consumers judge product similarity by considering both common and distinctive features (Johnson, 1986), the activation of common features should increase perceived similarity and the activation of distinctive features should decrease perceived similarity. Activation may occur either by the nature of the grouping with other products and usage situations or by more overt priming, for example, in a comparative advertisement or by a brand slogan. Timing the Prime As stated earlier, recency and frequency of activation increase the likelihood that an idea will come to mind. However, priming is more effective if subjects are encouraged to think of particular aspects when forming an impression of a stimulus rather than when retrieving an impression that has already been formed. Stated more succinctly, encoding a stimulus in the context of a prime is more important than retrieving a stimulus in the context of a prime (Srull & Wyer, 1980). Primes presented after the stimulus have little or no effect (Fiske & Taylor, 1984; Srull & Wyer, 1980). The implication for brand extension is that if Gerber wants consumers to think of purity when evaluating a Gerber ketchup then Gerber should emphasize purity when consumers first form an impression of Gerber ketchup rather than later. ADVERTISING SLOGANS 69

Hypotheses The preceding discussion suggests the following hypotheses, both of which deal with the effect of priming particular product features that may influence the way subjects perceive and evaluate brand extensions. H,: Hz: A brand extension will be rated as more similar to existing familybranded products if the advertising slogan primes attributes that the brand extension shares with those existing products than if the slogan primes attributes that the brand extension does not share with existing family-branded products. Given a positively evaluated brand, a brand extension will be evaluated more positively if the advertising slogan primes features that the extension shares with existing family-branded products than if the slogan primes attributes that the brand extension does not share with existing family-branded products. METHOD These hypotheses were tested by manipulating three advertising slogans that subjects read before reading further information about a fictitious brand (called Bella ) and its existing products, which were all soups. Subjects then evaluated six potential brand extensions on scales measuring the similarity of each brand extension to existing products and attitude toward each brand extension. A fictitious brand was chosen because the attitudes and beliefs associated with real brands are uncontrollable and could interact unpredictably with the experimental manipulation. In addition, the slogans of existing brands would be well known (at least to some subjects) and therefore impossible to manipulate. The Priming Manipulation Attribute priming was manipulated as a between-subjects factor with three levels, each of which was represented by a different brand slogan. The only thing in the study that varied between subjects was the paragraph in the company description concerning their advertising slogan. Level 1 of the prime was a slogan designed to increase the salience of nutrition as a product attribute. Subjects in this experimental group read that The people in charge of promoting Bella products believe that their advantage over the competition lies in building a reputation for wholesome, nutritious foods. This emphasis on wholesomeness and nutrition is reflected in their advertising. The Bella slogan Nutrition is our middle name has become well-known in several languages. 70 BOUSH

The second level of the prime was a slogan designed to increase the salience of spiciness as a product attribute. Subjects in this group read that The people in charge of promoting Bella products believe that their advantage over the competition lies in building a reputation for spicy, exciting foods. This emphasis on excitement and spiciness is reflected in their advertising. The Bella slogan Spice is our middle name has become well-known in several languages. The third level of the prime was a slogan designed to increase the salience of high quality as a product attribute. Because any and all products should benefit equally from an association with high quality, this level served as a neutral control. Subjects in this group read that The people in charge of promoting Bella products believe that their advantage over the competition lies in building a reputation for high quality foods. This emphasis on quality is reflected in their advertising. The Bella slogan Quality is our middle name has become well-known in several languages. Potential Brand Extensions Six products were chosen for subjects to evaluate as potential Bella brand extensions (steak sauce, pickles, spaghetti with meat sauce, breakfast cereal, frozen vegetables, and baby food). The products were chosen to all be moderately similar to soups because it seems likely that evaluations of extremely similar or dissimilar products could not be affected much by a slogan. It is also more likely that a real brand that made soups might try to extend its product line into other food products. In addition, three of the new brand extensions (steak sauce, pickles, and spaghetti with meat sauce) could plausibly benefit from an association with spiciness. The other three (breakfast cereal, frozen vegetables, and baby food) could benefit from an association with wholesome nutrition but not as much from spiciness. The products were all well-known, widely advertised, and widely distributed consumer products. Dependent Variables Evaluation. Evaluations of the brand extensions were measured on 7- point bipolar adjective scales. Subjects rated each potential new Bella product on desirability (1 = Undesirable, 7 = Desirable) and favorability (1 = Unfavorable, 7 = Favorable) (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Similarity. Subjects also rated the similarity of each brand extension to Bella soup (1 = Dissimilar, 7 = Similar) (Loken & Ward, 1987; Ward & Loken, 1986). ADVERTISING SLOGANS 71

Subjects Subjects were 174 undergraduate students (58 in each of three experimental conditions). Subjects participated in the experiment voluntarily but without monetary or extra credit incentive at the end of their first class period in an introductory marketing class. Procedure After reading instructions on the use of rating scales, subjects read three kinds of information about the Bella brand: 1. Information designed to make the brand seem more like a real company but one with which they had no previous experience. Specifically, subjects were discouraged from thinking that this company was Campbell s Soup. Subjects were told that Bella products were made by a relatively new European company with sales approaching $100 million U.S. They were told that the Bella name had been applied only to canned soups but that the company was considering putting its name on other products. 2. One of the three versions of the Bella advertising slogan, described earlier. 3. Information about existing Bella soup lines in a Consumer Reports format. Evaluations were presented for freshness of ingredients, nutritional value, spiciness, thickness, and overall taste. Evaluations were all excellent and very good (see Figure 1). Next, subjects evaluated Bella s existing products and the brand overall using bipolar adjective scales. Subjects then were asked to evaluate the potential brand extensions one at a time on the evaluation scales described earlier. Subjects then rated the similarity of each brand extension to Bella soups. Next, in order to ensure that the primed attributes were positively associated with products as expected, subjects rated the extent of their agreement with statements associating attributes with potential brand extensions. For example, subjects were asked to rate, on a 7-point scale (1 = Disagree, 7 = Agree), their agreement with the statement Good steak sauce is spicy. The attributes included those that were primed (nutritious and spicy) as well as three others included to disguise the experiment s purpose (fresh, sweet, and good tasting). The order of both the similarity and the attitude ratings was reversed for half the subjects in each treatment. Subjects completed the procedure, which lasted approximately 15 minutes, as a group. 72 BOUSH

The following information was recently provided by a consumer rating service regarding soups made by Bella. Each line of Bella soups was rated on freshness of ingredients, nutritional value, spiciness, thickness, and overall taste. Please read the ratings of Bella soups shown below. Bella Gourmet Soups Freshness of Ingredients Nutritional Value SpicinesdSeasoning Thickness1 Consistency Overall Taste Bella Country Inn Soups Freshness of Ingredients Nutritional Value Spiciness/Seasoning Thickness Consistency Overall Taste Bella Grandmother s Favorites Freshness of Ingredients Nutritional Value Spiciness/Seasoning ThicknessIConsistency Overall Taste Bella Country Kettle Stews Freshness of Ingredients Nutritional Value Spiciness/Seasoning Thickness/Consistency Overall Taste RATINGS OF BELLA SOUPS Number of Stars (Out of possible 4) *** tttt **** t** ttt **** t** ttt *** *t* *** **** *t*t t*t* **** Figure 1. Fictitious Ratings of Bella Soups Verbal Rating RESULTS Manipulation Checks Evaluations of Existing Bella Products. Analyses of potential brand extensions presume a positive evaluation of the existing brand, which seems to have been successfully established. The mean ratings on 7- point scales where 7 = Desirable, Favorable, or High Quality and 1 = Undesirable, Unfavorable, or Low Quality ranged from 5.9 to 6.2 across the three experimental treatments, all acceptably positive. There were no significant differences in mean attitude ratings toward existing Bella products across the three treatments. ADVERTISING SLOGANS 13

~ Brand Extension Associations with Primed Attributes. As a manipulation check on the relevance of nutrition, spiciness, and high quality as primes, subjects were asked to rate the extent of their agreement (1 = Disagree, 7 = Agree) with a series of statements. Each statement was the form A good [name of potential brand extension] is [product attribute]. The resulting ratings revealed significant differences in the attributes that were favorably associated with four of the six potential brand extensions. Nutrition was significantly more closely associated with good frozen vegetables [t(1,172) = 27.25; p < 0.0001, baby food [t(1,171) = 59.48; p < 0.0001, and breakfast cereal [t(1,170) = 58.81; p < 0.0001 than was spiciness. Spiciness was significantly more closely associated with good steak sauce [t(1,172) = 9.73; p < 0.0001 than was nutrition. Associations with high quality were uniformly high for all potential brand extensions. Differences in favorable attribute associations were not significant for spaghetti with meat sauce or pickles. Based on the manipulation check, we should expect significantly higher similarity and evaluative ratings for frozen vegetables, baby food, and breakfast cereal when nutrition or high quality was primed than when spiciness was primed. We may expect similarity and attitude ratings for steak sauce to be higher when spiciness or high quality was primed than when nutrition was primed. Tests of the Hypotheses A multivariate analysis of variance was conducted to examine the effects of the priming manipulation on all the dependent measures taken together. The results support a significant main effect of the slogan on similarity and evaluative ratings combined [F(24,306) = 2.78; p < 0.0001. To test the hypotheses, separate analyses were conducted on the similarity and evaluative ratings. Priming Effects on Similarity Ratings. A multivariate analysis of variance was conducted to examine the effect of the priming manipulation on similarity ratings of the potential brand extensions. The results supported a significant main effect [F(12,322) = 3.17; p < 0.0001. To explore the results further, analyses of variance were conducted using each product similarity rating as a separate dependent measure. Univariate effects were significant for frozen vegetables [F(2,171) = 3.32, p < 0.0381, baby food [F(2,171) = 6.34, p < 0.0021, breakfast cereal [F(2,171) = 5.18, p < 0.0071, and canned spaghetti [F(2,171) = 4.44, p < 0.0131. The effect of the manipulation was also close to conventional significance for pickles [F(2,171) = 3.04; p < 0.05041 and steak sauce [F(2,171) = 2.34; p < 0.0091. Follow-up Student Neuman Keuls range tests revealed that, at p < 0.05, mean similarity ratings for baby food I4 BOUSH

and breakfast cereal were significantly lower when spiciness was primed than when either quality or nutrition were primed. Similarity ratings for frozen vegetables were significantly higher when nutrition was primed than when spiciness was primed, but did not differ significantly from the treatment that primed quality. The mean similarity rating for canned spaghetti was higher when either spiciness or quality were primed than when nutrition was primed. As Table 1 describes, the effect was in the predicted direction in all cases. Hypothesis 1 was supported. Priming Effects on Eualuative Ratings. Correlations between the desirability and favorability scales averaged 0.87, so they were summed to produce a 14-point overall evaluation scale (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). A multivariate analysis of variance indicated that the priming manipulation significantly affected evaluations of the potential brand extensions taken together [F(12,320) = 3.52; p < 0.0001. Separate analyses of variance were conducted to explore the effects of the manipulation on evaluations of each product. Univariate effects were significant for evaluations of frozen vegetables [F(2,169) = 4.92, p < 0.0081, baby food [F(2,168) = 1.66, p C 0.0001, and breakfast cereal [F(2,169) = 8.92, p < 0.000). Follow-up range tests revealed that, at p < 0.05, mean evaluative ratings for frozen vegetables, baby food, and breakfast cereal were significantly lower when spiciness was primed than when either quality or nutrition were primed. As Table 2 describes, the effect was in the predicted direction in all cases. (There were no significant differences in evaluations between the treatment that primed quality and the treatment that primed nutrition.) The results support Hypothesis 2. As the manipulation check indicated, positive associations with spiciness were not as strong as those for nutrition. The Spice is our middle name slogan simply did not help products like steak sauce as much as the Nutrition is our middle name slogan helped baby food, frozen vegetables, and breakfast cereal. Table 1. Mean Similarity Ratings of Potential Brand Extensions to Bella Soup Treatment 1 Treatment 2 Treatment 3 All Nutrition S p i c i n e s s Quality Subjects Primed Primed Primed Frozen vegetables 3.9 4.3 3.6 3.9 Baby food 3.4 3.8 2.8 3.7 Breakfast cereal 2.8 3.1 2.3 3.1 Canned spaghetti 5.2 4.8 5.5 5.2 Steak sauce 4.2 3.8 4.5 4.2 Pickles 3.3 2.9 3.7 3.1 ADVERTISING SLOGANS I5

Table 2. Mean Evaluative Ratings of Products as Potential Bella Brand Extensions Treatment 1 Treatment 2 Treatment 3 All Nutrition Spiciness Quality Subjects Primed Primed Primed Frozen vegetables 10.08 10.61 9.28 10.43 Baby food 9.55 10.36 8.07 10.29 Breakfast cereal 9.29 10.28 8.13 9.54 Canned spaghetti 11.26 11.43 11.41 10.94 Steak sauce 10.97 10.89 11.32 10.68 Pickles 10.32 10.43 10.41 10.15 DISCUSSION Brand slogans do seem to influence the acceptability of potential brand extensions. The most interesting aspect of this influence in the present study was that the slogans emphasizing spiciness and nutrition limited, more than helped, potential extensions. None of the brand extensions received a significantly higher evaluative rating when the slogan primed nutrition or spiciness than when it primed quality. However, a slogan that primed spiciness, for example, precluded subjects from giving a favorable evaluation to baby food, frozen vegetables, and cereal as brand extensions. From a brand extension perspective, it paid to be general. The difference in generality between slogans might best be viewed as a difference in the level of the subjects hierarchy of benefits (Gutman, 1982). For example, spiciness might be an attribute that only implies a benefit, nutrition might be a direct benefit, and quality, a higher-order benefit. Like actual brand slogans, the slogans in this experiment may have been more than a pure priming manipulation. Not only did the slogans focus attention on different product attributes, they may have altered the beliefs about those attributes. That is, for a company to stress nutrition in its slogan may imply to the consumer a real commitment to producing nutritious products. On the other hand, the Consumer Reports product ratings were identical across all treatment conditions. Nothing suggested any real differences in the attributes of existing Bella products across treatments. It should also be noted that the manipulated evaluation of existing Bella products probably did not produce strong affect. Consequently, the experimental results may not apply to situations in which the customer is strongly brand loyal. As with any experiment, there may be a concern that subjects guessed the purpose of the experiment and simply responded to its demands. To assess this potential problem all subjects were asked to write down what they believed to be the purpose of the experiment. Most subjects said something about the differences in similarity between the potential brand extensions and the existing products. Although this may have 76 BOUSH

affected their responses, there is no reason to believe that it influenced their ratings differentially across the three levels of the between-subjects factor. Only 16 of 174 subjects (less than 10%) mentioned the slogan. The analyses were performed without those subjects who were suspected of guessing the experiment s purpose and the results were not significantly affected. Therefore, it seems likely that the results of this study reflect real differences in responses to the manipulations. This experiment supported the notion that brand slogans can alter the perceptions of the similarity of potential brand extensions to existing family-branded products and consequently of their evaluation as suitable extensions. In so doing, slogans can support or, especially, undermine a brand extension strategy. Advertisers need to consider not only the need to differentiate their brand images from those of competitors, but also the possibility that they may want to extend their brand into new products or markets. If Mita wants to start making something other than great copiers or Gerber wants a business other than babies, their previous slogans may constitute substantial barriers. REFERENCES Aaker, D. A., & Keller, K. L. (1990). Consumer evaluations of brand extensions. Journal of Marketing, 54, 27-41. Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behauior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Bargh, J. A., & Pietromonaco, P. (1982). Automatic information processing and social perception: The influence of trait information presented outside of conscious awareness on impression formation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 437-449. Barsalou, L. W. (1982). Context-independent and context-dependent information in concepts. Memory and Cognition, 10, 82-93. Barsalou, L. W. (1983). Ad hoc categories. Memory and Cognition, 11, 211-227. Boush, D., Shipp, S., Loken, B., Gencturk, E., Crockett, S., Kennedy, E., Minshall B., Misurell, D. Rochford, L., & Strobel, J. (1987). Affect generalization to similar and dissimilar brand extensions. Psychology and Marketing, 4, 225-237. Bronson, G. (1982, July 17). Baby food it is, but Gerber wants teenagers to think of it as dessert. Wall Street Journal, p. 29. Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention and behauior. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Fiske, S., & Taylor, S. E. (1984). Social cognition. Reading, MA: Addison- Wesley. Gutman, J. (1982). A means-end chain model based on consumer categorization processes. Journal of Marketing, 46, 60-72. Herr, P. M. (1986). Consequences of priming: Judgement and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1106-1115. ADVERTISING SLOGANS 77

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