Contents Preface to the Second Edition... xv Preface to the First Edition... xvii Author... xix Part I The Theory Chapter 1 Proteins and Amino Acids... 3 Introduction... 3 Amino Acids... 4 Peptide Linkage... -4 Free Amino Acid Pool... 5 Protein Synthesis... 6 Regulation of Protein Synthesis... 7 Factors Affecting Protein Synthesis and Catabolism... 9 Cellular Hydration and Protein Synthesis... 11 Cellular Hydration and Amino Acids... 12 Nutrients and Protein Synthesis... 13 Protein Catabolism... 14 Adaptive Response to Exercise... 15 Exercise-Induced Amino Acid Flux... 17... References 17 Chapter 2 Exercise and Protein Metabolism... 23 Introduction... -23 Effects of Exercise on Protein Synthesis and Degradation... 24 Effects of Protein and Amino Acids on Exercise Performance... 24 Hormonal Response to Exercise... 24 Hormones... 26 Growth Hormone... 27 Growth Hormone and Athletic Performance... 28 Problems with Exogenous Growth Hormone... 30 Effects of Growth Hormone on Body Composition and Athletic Performance... 30 GH, IGF-1, Insulin, and Amino Acids Synergism... 31 Nutrient and Hormone Delivery to Muscle... 32 Growth Hormone and Exercise... 32 Growth Hormone and Endurance Athletes... 33 Effects of GH on Core Temperature and Performance... 33 Effects of GH on Intramyocellular Triacylglycerol/Triglyceride Content... 33 Regenerative and Cognitive Effects of GH and IGF-1... 34 Effects of GH on Aging... 34 Growth Hormone Synthesis and Secretion... 34
Myostatin... 35 GH and Myostatin... 36 Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1... 37 GH and IGF-1 Synergism... 40 Mechano Growth Factor... 42 Insulin... 43 Insulin's Controversial Effects on Protein Synthesis and Degradation... 45 Insulin and Nutrient Delivery... 46 Insulin. GH. and IGF-1 Synergism... 47 Thyroid Hormones... 48 Thyroid Hormones and Protein Metabolism... 50 Thyroid Hormone and Other Hormones... 51 Testosterone... 52 Stress and Testosterone Levels... 53 Exercise and Testosterone Levels... 53 Catabolic Hormones... 55 Effect of the Catabolic Hormones on Skeletal Muscle Catabolism... 55 Catecholamines... -56 Effects of Catecholamines on Protein Metabolism... 57 Glucagon... 58 Glucagon and Insulin... 59 Cortisol... 60 Cortisol. Amino Acids. and Other Hormones... 61 Testosterone to Cortisol Ratio... 61 Testosterone to Cortisol Ratio and Exercise... 62 Effect of Dietary Nutrients on Testosterone and the Testosterone to Cortisol Ratio... 63 Cytokines and Muscle Protein Synthesis... f54 Eicosanoids and Muscle Protein Synthesis... 66 Hormonal Effects of Amino Acids... 69 References... -70 Chapter 3 Energy Metabolism... 107 Introduction... 107 Energy Sensing... 108 Metabolic Pathways Producing ATP... 108 Anaerobic Energy Production... 108 Cytoplasmic Anaerobic Substrate-Level Phosphorylation... 108 Anaerobic Mitochondria1 Phosphorylation... 109 Aerobic Energy Production... 109 TCA Cycle... 110 Role of Protein and Amino Acids in Energy Metabolism... 111 Fate of Dietary Protein... 112 Protein Contribution to Energy Metabolism... 113 Amino Acid Catabolism... 1 13 Oxidation of Amino Acids... 113 Gluconeogenesis... 115 Amino Acids and Gluconeogenesis... 116 Hormonal Control of Gluconeogenesis... 117 Effects of Amino Acids on Hepatic Glucose Metabolism... 118
vii Use of Amino Acids for Energy.- atabolic Effects of Exercise... 118 Amino Acid Metabolism in Muscle... 119 Pathways of Amino Acid Metabolism in Muscle... 119 Skeletal Muscle Catabolism... 119 Oxidation of Amino Acids... 120 Glucogenic and Ketogenic Amino Acids... 122 Glucogenic Amino Acids... 123 Metabolized to AKG. Pyruvate. Oxaloacetate. Fumarate. or Succinyl-CoA... 123 Ketogenic Amino Acids... 124 Metabolized to Acetyl-CoA or Acetoacetate... 124 Alanine and Glutamine... -124 Interorgan Exchange of Amino Acids... 125 Protein Metabolism and Ammonia... 126 Metabolism of Ammonia... 126 Urea Formation by the Liver... 128 High Levels of Protein Intake and Ammonia... 129 LowCarbohydrate. High-Protein Diets and Energy Metabolism... 130 Metabolic Advantage of a I-Iigh.Protein. Low-Carbohydrate Diet... 130 Dietary Calories from Macronutrients... 130 Low-Carbohydrate Controversy... 131 Conclusions and Recommendations... 132 References... 133 Chapter 4 Dietary Protein and Amino Acids... 139 Effects of Protein on Dietary Intake and Appetite... 139 Classification of Proteins... 139 Simple Proteins... 139 Conjugated Proteins... 140 Functions of Proteins... 141 Growth... 141 Maintenance... 141 Regulatory... 141 Energy... 142 Coagulation and Denaturation... 142 Protein Digestion. Absorption. and Metabolism... 142 Requirement for Dietary Protein-Amino Acid Needs... 144 Quality of Proteins... 144 Slow and Fast Dietary Proteins... 145 Effects of Dietary Protein on Protein Metabolism... 147 Protein Quality-Amino Acid Requirements... 1 4 7 Vegetarian Diets... 149 Types of Vegetarians... 150 Nutritional Quality of Vegetarian Diets... 150 Vegetarian Food Guide-Basic Four Food Groups... 151 Supplying Required Nutrients... -152 Nutritional Considerations of Vegetarians... 152 Special Nutrient Needs of Vegetarians... 152 Vegetarian Athletes... 153
Common Vitamin and Mineral Deficiencies... 153 Specific Nutritional Needs of Vegetarians... 154 Protein... 154 Ensuring Adequate and High-Quality Protein... 154 Complementary Proteins... 154 Nutritional Responses to Combining Two Dietary Proteins... 156 Nutritional Supplements and the Vegetarian Athlete... 157 Creatine... 158 Food Processing... 158 Measuring Protein Quality... 158 Protein Efficiency Ratio... 158 Biological Value... 159 Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score... 160 Dietary Protein Requirements... 161 How Was the RDA Established?... 163 Recommended Daily Intakes for Athletes... 164 Historical Overview... 164 Effects of Exercise on Dietary Protein Requirements... 165 Protein (Nitrogen) Balance... 168 Effect of Dietary Protein on Protein Metabolism... 170 Amino Acid Metabolism... 171 The Dietary Protein Paradox-The Probable Need for Protein and Amino Acid Supplements Even in Diets High in Dietary Protein... 172 Protein Needs in Calorie-Restricted Diets... 174 References... 174 Chapter 5 Protein Foods versus Protein and Amino Acid Supplements... 185 Hydrolysates-Comparison to Whole Protein and Intact Whole-Protein Supplements... 186 Whey Protein Hydrolysates and the Athlete... 187 BV of Whey Hydrolysates... 188 Whey Protein and the Immune System... 188 Effects of Whey Protein on Glutathione Levels... 188 Whey and Casein and Antigenicity-Advantages of Hydrolysates... 189 Whey Protein-Conclusions... 190 Free-Form Amino Acids versus Di- and Tripeptides... 190 Practical Guide to Commercial Amino Acid Preparations... 191 Free-Form Amino Acid Mixtures... 192 Peptide-Bonded Aminos... 1 9 2 Factors Affecting Amino Acid Bioavailability... 192 Role of Amino Acid Supplementation in Muscle Hypertrophy and Strength... 193 References... 194 Chapter 6 Physiological and Pharmacological Actions of Amino Acids... 197 Introduction... 197 Central Nervous System Effects of Amino Acids... 199 Effects of Amino Acids on Growth Hormone Release... 200 Hepatoprotectant and Cytoprotective Effects of Amino Acids... 201 References... 201
Chapter 7 Essential Amino Acids... 207 Use of Essential Amino Acids after Training Increases 24 h Protein Balance... 207 Branched-Chain Amino Acids: Isoleucine. Leucine. and Valine... 208 BCAAs and Muscle Hypertrophy... 212 BCAAs and Hypoxia... 213 Regulation of Muscle Protein Synthesis by Leucine... 213. Leucine and Body Composition... 214 Branched-Chain Keto Acids... 215 a-ketoisocaproic Acid... 215 P-Hydroxy-P-Methylbutyrate... -216 Lysine... -218 ~Carnitine... -218 L-Carnitine Metabolism... 219 L-Carnitine Functions... 220 LCAR Effects on Body Composition and Exercise Performance... 221 L-Carnitine and Choline... 224 Acetyl-L-Carnitine... 224.. Cognitive and Antiaging Effects of ALCAR... 226 Methionine... -227 S-Adenosy 1-L-Methionine... 229 Creatine... 229 Creatine Supplementation... 230 Creatine Supplementation Combined with Other Ingredients... 232 Creatine and Caffeine... 232 mylalanine... 233 honine... 233 Tryptophan... 233 References... 235...Chapter 8 Conditionally Essential Amino Acids... 253.. t-arginine... 253 L-Arginine and Nitric Oxide... 255 : L-Arginine and the Athlete... 256 Thiamin. Arginine. Caffeine. and Citric Acid Combination... 258 Recovery and Athletic Injuries... 258 Possible Ergolytic Effects of Nitric Oxide... 258 L-Arginine and Caffeine... 258 L-Citrulline... 259.. Citrulline Malate... 260 L-Cysteine... 260 i N-Acetylcy steine... 261. L-Glutamine... 262 ; Glutamine Metabolism... 263 E Anabolic and Anticatabolic Effects of Glutarnine... 263. Glutamine and Cortisol... 264?. Anabolic Effects of Glutarnine... 266 I Glutarnine and Athletic Performance... 267 :' Glutamine and Overtraining... 269 ; Oral Glutamine Supplementation... 270 6 P
Glutamine in Supplements... 2 1 Summary... 271 a-ketoglutarate... 272 Histidine... 272 L-Carnosine... 273 Buffering Effects of Carnosine... 274 Tyrosine... 275 Proline and Hydroxyproline... 276 References... -277 Chapter 9 Nonessential or Dispensable Amino Acids... 297 Alanine... -297 Glucose-Alanine Cycle... 297 Alanine Needs and Exercise... 300 P-Alanine... 301 Asparagine and Aspartic Acid... 302 Malate-Aspartate Shuttle... 304 D-Aspartic Acid... 305 Citrulline... 305 Citrulline Malate... 306 Glutamic Acid... 306 Ornithine... 306 Omithine a-ketoglutarate... 307 Serine... 308 Phosphatidylserine... 309 Glycine... 3 10 Taurine... 3 1 Levodopa (L-Dopa)... 313 Analogues and Derivatives of Amino Acids... 314 Protein and Amino Acids and Muscle Hypertrophy... 314 References... 315 Chapter 10 Summary and Conclusions... 327 Part I1 Naturally Anabolic Chapter 11 Artificial Enhancement... 331 Introduction... 331 Drugs in Sports... 331 Nutritional Supplements... 331 Gene Therapy and Sports... 331 The Easy. but Dangerous Way Out... 333 References... 334 Chapter 12 Getting It Together... 335 Hormonal Manipulation... 335 Maximizing Lean Body Mass and Athletic Performance without Drugs... 336
Genetics... 336 Usual Suspects-Lifestyle. Training. Diet. and Nutritional Supplements... 337 Performance and Body Composition Enhancement Pipeline... 337 Factors That Maximize the Pipeline... 338 Step Number One-Lifestyle... 338 Step Number Two-Training without Overtraining... 338 Recovery Phase-Protein Synthesis after Exercise... 340 Hormonal Changes with Exercise... 340 Maximizing the Anabolic and Minimizing the Catabolic Effects of Exercise... 342 Step Number Three-Maximizing Diet and Nutrition... 343 Weight Loss and Body Composition... 345 Effective Fat Loss... 346 Phase Shift Diets... 346 Evolution of My Phase Shift Diets... 346 Man's Survival: The History of Food... 347 Recipe for Disaster... 348 Control of Weight and Body Composition... 348 Unstructured Phase Shift Diets... 350 Structured Phase Shift Diets... 351 Metabolic Diet... -351 Cultural Carbohydrates... 353 Carbohydrate Dilemma... 353 Higher-Carbohydrate Phase... 353 Low-Carbohydrate Phase... 353 Scientific Validation... 354 Glucose Metabolism at the Start of the Low-Carbohydrate Phase of the Metabolic Diet... 355 Postexercise Carbohydrates are Counterproductive... 356 Low.Carbohydrate. High-Protein Diets. and Energy Metabolism... 358 Metabolic Advantage of a High.Protein. Low-Carbohydrate Diet... 358 Dietary Calories from Macronutrients... 358 Low-Carbohydrate Controversy... 359 Step Number Four-Nutritional Supplements... 360 Why, When, and How to Take Them and How Much to Take... 360 Why Use Nutritional Supplements?... 361 Sports Performance... 362 Cycling of Supplements... 362 Stage One: Detraining or Rest Phase... 362 Stage Two: Beginning Training Phase... 363 Stage Three: Precompetition and Competition Phase... 363 Current Nutritional Supplement Use... 363 Benefits of Nutritional Supplements... 366 Vitamins and Minerals... 366 Antioxidants... 368 Vitamin C... 368 Coenzyme Q10 (Ubiquinone-10)... 369 Zinc... 369 Magnesium... 369 Calcium... 369 Chromium... 370 Chromium and Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA)... 370
Potassium... 370 Alpha Lipoic Acid... 371 Glucosamine Sulfate... 371 Green Tea Extract... 372 Hydroxycitrate... 372 Citrus aurantium... 373 Yohimbe... 374 Dhea... 374 Essential Fatty Acids... 375 Omega3 Fatty Acids... 375 EFAs and Body Composition and Exercise Performance... 376 Gamma Linolenic Acid... 377 Conjugated Linolenic Acid... 377 Glycerol... 378 Pyruvate... 378 Caffeine and Ephedrine... 378 Anticortisol Supplements... 379 Amino Acid and Protein Supplementation... 379 Timing of Nutrient and Protein Intake in Relation to Exercise... 380 Postexercise Carbohydrates May Be Counterproductive... 381 References... 382 Chapter 13 Examples of Useful Nutritional Supplement Formulations... 397 Example of a Weight and Fat Loss. and Body Composition Supplement... 397 Thiamin. Arginine. Caffeine. and Citric Acid Combination... 397 Yohimbe... 397 Citrus aurantium... 398 Evodiamine... 398 Cayenne Pepper... 399 Green Tea Extract... 399 Phenylalanine... 399 Tyrosine... 399 Tyrosine. Capsaicin. Catechins. Calcium. and Caffeine Combo... 399 Conjugated Linoleic Acid... 400 Guarana... 400 Conjugated Linoleic Acid and Guarana Combo... 400 Chromium... -400 Chromium and CLA... 401 Yerba Matt... 401 Niacin... 401 Dandelion... 401 Amino Acids... 402 Histidine... 402 Taurine... 402 Calcium... 402 Other Ingredients... 403 Boosting Endogenous Growth Hormone... 403 Postexercise Amino Acid Formulation... 406