CONTENTS Preface xi Acknowledgments xiii Credits xiv Introduction Chapter 1 Introductory Concepts...................... 3 Definitions and Context 4 Chronological Age and Age Groups....................... 7 Why Study These Phenomena?......................... 8 Types of Studies............................... 10 Principies of Measurement and Observation 11 Overview of Postnatal Growth: Scammon's Curves............... 13 General Regulation of Growth and Maturation 14 Sources of Growth, Performance, and Activity Data 14....................... 18....................... 18 Chapter 2 Prenatal Growth and Functional Development 21 Stages of Prenatal Growth 21 Sex Differentiation 23 Twins and Twinning 25 Prenatal Loss 25 Congenital Malformations.......................... 26 Fetal Growth 26 Fetal Motor Activity............................. 29 Factors That Affect Birth Weight 30 Overview of the Prenatal Period 34 Fetal Origins of Adult Diseases 35....................... 36 SourcesandSuggestedReadings....................... 36
Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Postnatal Growth Chapter3 SomaticGrowth......................... 41 Measurements Commonly Used in Growth Studies 42 Growth in Stature and Body Weight 49 Growth of the Body Mass Index.... 64 Growth Patterns in Other Body Dimensions 67 Changes in Body Proportions... 70 Adjusting for Variation in Body Size-Scaling 71 Tracking... 73 Summary........ 77 77.......... Development of Physique Concept of Somatotype... Methods in the Assessment of Physique Somatotyping Children and Adolescents... Examples of Somatotypes of Individuals During Growth Distributions of Somatotypes. Change in Somatotype During Growth Tracking. Body Composition... Models of Body Composition... Methods for Estimating Body Composition Applications to Children and Adolescents. Concept of Chemical Maturity... Composition of the Fat-Free Mass in Children and Adolescents Changes in Body Density and Total-BodyWater During Growth Growth in Fat-Free Mass,Fat Mass,and Percent Fat Tracking... Bone Tissue in Skeletal Growth and Body Composition.. BoneCells... Bone Formation........ Growth of a Long Bone Bone As a Component of Body Composition Tracking... Skeletal Muscle Tissue Muscle As a Tissue Myogenesis.............................. 83 84 84 88 89 92 93 95 99 99...... 101.101.104.108.110.110.112.113.116.117.117...... 121.121.122.124.127.134.134.134.... 137.137.....142
Muscle Fiber Types... Muscle Fiber Size... Contractile Properties of Muscle Metabolic Properties of Muscle. Assessing Muscle Mass of the Body Development of Muscle Tissue by Bodily Region....... Chapter8 Adipose Tissue... The Fat CellAsa Complex Structure... Stages and Mechanisms of Adipogenesis White and Brown Adipose Cells... White Adipose Tissue in Prenatal Life.. White Adipose Tissue in Postnatal Life Subcutaneous Fat Distribution During Growth Abdominal Visceral Fat During Growth Stability of Body Fat During Growth.. Functional DeveloDment Chapter9 Heart, Blood, and Lungs...... Features of Fetal Circulation... Cardiopulmonary Adjustments at Birth Changes in Heart Size... Changes in Heart Functions... Changes in Features of Blood During Growth Changes in Lungs and Respiratory Functions During Growth........... Chapter 10 Motor Development..... What 15Motor Development? Motor Pattern and Skill Classifications of Motor Activities The Newborn Infant and the Reflexes of Infancy Motor Development-Birth to 2 Years of Age Development of Independent Walking Development of Fundamental Motor Skills Early Motor Development and Growth of the Brain Status at Birth and Subsequent Motor Development Early Postnatal Growth and Motor Development Overview of Motor Development.143.146.147.148.150.152.154.154..... 159.159.161.163.165.165.169.172.174.175.175.... 181.181.183.184.185.187.189.192.192.... 195.196.196.196.197.198.199.202.207.208.209.209.210.210
Chapter 11 Strength and Motor Performance... Physical Fitness.......... Measures of Strength and Motor Performance. Performance in Early Childhood... Performance in Middle Childhood and Adolescence Relationships of Strength and Motor Performance to Size,Physique, and Body Composition. Scaling of Strength and Motor Performance Tracking... Chapter 12 Aerobic Performance... Measurement Issues................ Growth-Related Adaptations in Aerobic Performance........ Chapter 13 Anaerobic Performance... Anaerobic Versus Aerobic Energy Turnover Determinants of Anaerobic Performance Measurement Issues........... Growth and the Determinants of Anaerobic Performance Sourcesand Suggested Readings........ Chapter 14 Thermoregulation During Growth... The Physics of HeatTransfer... Physiological Means ofthermoregulation......... Responsesto HeatAssociatedWithGrowthand Maturation Acclimatizationand Acclimation Response to Cold Climates....... 215.216.216.217.218.224.227.228.231.231.... 235.236.238.248.248...... 251.252.253.254.258.264.264.... 267.267.268.268.270.271.272.273 Chapter 15 Biological Maturation: Concepts and Assessment Assessing Skeletal Maturity Assessing Sexual Maturity. Assessing Somatic Maturity Assessing Dental Maturity. Interrelationships Among Maturity Indicators......... 277.278.283.293.297.297.302.302
Chapter 16 Timing and Sequence of Changes During Adolescence... Adolescent Growth Spurt... Sexual Maturity............ Sequence of Sexual and Somatic Maturity Growth Spurts in Other Dimensions Body Dimensions and Composition Relative to Peak Height Velocity Growth Spurts in Performance.. Performance Relative to Menarche.. Chapter 17 Maturity-Associated Variation in Growth and Performance..... Classifying Children by Maturity Status.. Maturity-Associated Variation in Body Size... Maturity-AssociatedVariationin Physique... Maturity-Associated Variation in Body Composition Maturity-Associated Variation in Adipose Tissue Distribution Maturity-Associated Variation in Strength and Motor Performance Maturity-Associated Variation in the Adaptation to Exercise and V02max Maturity-Associated Variation in Anaerobic Performance Sourcesand Suggested Readings............... 307.307.310.315.318.323.327.331.333.333.... 337.338.340.341.342.348.350.358.361.362.362 Inftuencina Factors Chapter18 Genetic Regulation of Growth, Maturation, and Performance... The Human Genome......... The Human Gene... From Genes to Proteins to Phenotypes Gene Expression... The Special Case of Mitochondrial DNA Genetic Variation in Human Genes The Multifactorial Phenotype Genetics of Fetal Development.. Genetic Influences on the Newborn Genetics of Selected Growth Phenotypes Genetics of Maturation... Genetics of Selected Performance Phenotypes Examples of Growth-Related Genes............ Chapter19 Hormonal Regulation of Growth and Maturation Endocrine,Paracrine,Autocrine,and IntracrineSystems EndocrineHormones....... 369.370.373.375.377.377.377....379.380.381.382.386.388.393.395.395... 399.399.....400
Other Growth-Promoting Factors and Hormones Hypothalamic and Pituitary Hormones Growth Hormone and Related Growth Factors Thyroid Hormones... parathyroid and Calcitonin Hormones Hormones From the Adrenal Medulla and Cortex Gonadal Glands and Hormones Insulin and Glucagon leptin... Regulation of Puberty Menstrual Cycle... Overview of Hormones and Their Actions.... Chapter 20 Energy and Nutritional Requirements Nutrients.......... Breast-Feedingandthe Infant Energy Needs........ Energy Requirements for Growth Dietary Reference Intake (DRI)for Energy Intake DRIfor Protein Intake DRIfor Lipid Intake... Carbohydrate Requirements Vitamin Requirements Mineral Requirements... Summary..........402.403.404.407.409.410.411.416.417.420.422.423.425.425....... 429.430.430.431.432.438.440.444.446.446.448.453.453 Chapter 21 Physical Activity and Energy Expenditure: Assessment, Trends, and Tracking... What Is Physical Activity?... What Is Energy Expenditure?........ Methods of Assessing Patterns or levels of Physical Activity and Energy Expenditure Developmental Trends in Physical Activity and Energy Expenditure Tracking of Physical Activity levels............... Correlates of Physical Activity levels in Childhood and Adolescence..................... 457.458.458.459.467.470.471.474.474 Chapter 22 Physical Activity As a Factor in Growth, Maturation, and Performance... Physical Activity.............. Approaches to the Study of Physical Activity Activity and Stature............ Activity, Body Weight, and Body Composition Activity and Physique... Activity and SpecificTissues... Activity and Biological Maturity... Overview of Activity,Growth, and Maturation Activity,Fitness, and Performance........... 479.480.480.481.482.484.485.489.490.490
The Concept oftrainability... Chapter 23 Undernutrition in Childhood and Adolescence Criteria........ Prevalence... Forms of Undernutrition...... Undernutrition in Preschool Children Undernutrition in School-Age Children Long-Term Consequences of Undernutrition..... Chapter24 Obesity in Childhoodand Adolescence...... Indicators............. Criteria and Prevalence... Correlates of Overweight and Obesity... Consequences of Obesity for Children and Adolescents Long-Term Consequences of Obesity Treatment....493.504.505.... 509.509.510.511.511.516.521.522.522.... 527.527.528.532.538.544.545.546.547 Chapter 25 Other Factors Affecting Growth, Maturation, Performance, and Activity... Social Conditions, Growth, and Maturation... SocialConditions,MotorDevelopment,Performance,and Activity Ethnic Variation in Growth and Maturity... Ethnic Variation in Motor Development, Performance, and Activity Climate, Growth, and Maturity... Climate, Performance, and Physical Activity Sourcesand Suggested Readings.......... 553.553.560.565.571.574.575.577.577 lications Chapter 26 Risk Factors During Growth and Adult Health Primary and Secondary Prevention...... RiskFactors for Common Metabolic Diseases Current RiskProfile of Children and Adolescents............ 587.587.588.592.604.604 Chapter 27 Chronic Clinical Conditions and Physical Disabilities. 609 Selected Clinical Conditions That Affect Growth and Maturation 610 Physical Activity of Children and Adolescents With Chronic Conditions 612
Fitness and Performance of Children and Adolescents With Chronic Conditions.................. Chapter 28 The Young Athlete... Participation in Youth Sports.. Selection and Exclusion in Sport Who Isthe Young Athlete?... Stature and Weight of Young Athletes Maturity Status and Progress of Young Athletes Age at Menarche in Athletes... Physique of Young Athletes... Body Composition of Young Athletes..... Motor Performance Characteristics of Young Athletes Physiological Characteristics ofyoung Athletes Does Training for Sport Influence the Growth and Maturity of Young Athletes? Gymnastics and Ballet:Special Cases? Overview............615.618.619.... 623.624.625.626.627.628.629.633.633.634.635.636.641.644.645.646 Chapter 29 Secular Trends in Growth, Maturation, and Performance... Definitions... Sources of Secular Trend Data... Limitations and Assumptions in Secular Comparisons Secular Trends in Body Size... Secular Trends in Body Proportions.. Secular Trends in Indicators of Maturity Secular Trends in Performance.... Secular Trends in Developing Countries Factors Underlying Secular Trends.... 651.652.652.652.653.660.660.664.669.670.671.671 Appendix A:Conversion Tables 677 Appendix B:Suggestions for Individual and Group Activities Index 695 About the Authors 711 679