Drug T esti ng in the Workplace Research Advances in Alcohol and Drug Problems Volume 11
RESEARCH ADVANCES IN ALCOHOL AND DRUG PROBLEMS Series Editors H. M. Annis H. D. Cappell M. S. Goodstadt Y. Israel H. Kalant E. M. Sellers E. R. Vingilis A Continuation Order Plan is available for this series. A continuation order will bring delivery of each new volume immediately upon publication. Volumes are billed only upon actual shipment. For further information please contact the publisher.
Drug Testing in the Workplace Research Advances in Alcohol and Drug Problems Volume 11 Edited by Scott Macdonald Addiction Research Foundation London, Ontario, Canada and Paul Roman University of Georgia Athens, Georgia SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC
The Library of Congress cataloged the first volume of this title as follows: Research advances in alcohol & drug problems. v. 1- New York [etc.] J. Wiley, 1974- v. 24 cm. annual. "A Wiley biomedical health publication." ISSN 0093-9714 1. Alcoholism - Periodicals. 2. Narcotic habit - Periodicals. RCS6S.R37 616.8'6'()()S 73-18088 ISBN 978-1-4613-6017-9 ISBN 978-1-4615-2399-4 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-2399-4 (ebook) 1994 Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Plenum Press, New York in 1994 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilrning, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher
Contri butors SHAHID ALVI, Conference Board of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada JUDITH C. BLACKWELL, Department of Sociology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada TERRY C. BLUM, School of Management, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia BARBARA BUTLER, Barbara Butler & Associates Inc., Toronto, Ontario, Canada ROBERT B. COAMBS, Treatment Research and Development Department, Addiction Research Foundation, Toronto, Ontario, Canada R. V. DENENBERG, Denenberg Associates, Red Hook, New York TIA SCHNEIDER DENENBERG, Denenberg Associates, Red Hook, New York JOHN DINARDO, Department of Economics, University of California, Irvine, California DAIL L. FIELDS, School of Management, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia BHUSHAN KAPUR, Clinical Laboratories, Addiction Research Foundation, Toronto, Ontario, Canada JOAN M. KRAFT, Institute for Behavioral Research and Department of Sociology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia RISA L. LIEBERWITZ, New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York SCOTT MACDONALD, Social Evaluation and Research, Addiction Research Foundation, London, Ontario, Canada JOAN A. MARSHMAN, Addiction Research Foundation, Toronto, Ontario, Canada JACK K. MARTIN, Institute for Behavioral Research, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia MARY PAT McANDREWS, Treatment Research and Development Department, Addiction Research Foundation, Toronto, Ontario, Canada STUART H. MILNE, School of Management, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia v
vi CONTRIBUTORS MICHAEL D. NEWCOMB, Division of Counseling and Educational Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California MONIQUE PINSONNEAULT, Attorney, Auckland, New Zealand PAUL M. ROMAN, Institute for Behavioral Research, University of Georgia, Athens Georgia DAVID TRANTER, Barbara Butler & Associates Inc., Toronto, Ontario, Canada MARTIN SHAIN, Workplace Program, Addiction Research Foundation, Toronto, Ontario, Canada CHESTER S. SPELL, School of Management, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia SAMANTHA WELLS, Social Evaluation and Research, Addiction Research Foundation, London, Ontario, Canada
Preface Drug testing is one of the most controversial and complex issues facing the workplace in North America today. Ethical, legal, and social issues arise in just about any discussion of such testing. Limitations in research approaches and applications of scientific methods further obfuscate these issues. This book examines the broad contours of drug testing in terms of research findings and perspectives. The reader is faced with several poignant questions: What are the costs of alcohol and drug use in the workplace? What can drug testing reveal about an employee? Are drug tests accurate and reliable? How effective are drug screening programs? What are the consequences of testing? How can one evaluate the effectiveness and/or cost-effectiveness of testing? What are the legal implications of testing? What alternative approaches can be used in the workplace? What are the perspectives and attitudes of unions toward the numerous issues surrounding drug testing? What are the sociological implications of drug testing? These questions and more are addressed in fifteen chapters, which are grouped into two parts: research findings (Part I) and perspectives on drug testing (Part II). This book presents a wide range of findings, ideas, and perspectives related to drug testing. These may help the reader understand the complex and multitiered nature of drug-testing issues. It is hoped that researchers, program planners, policymakers, and employees will find this material useful for developing, evaluating, and refining workplace programs and policies. Likewise, these materials can guide research to address the many questions that remain unanswered. vii
Contents PART I. RESEARCH FINDINGS Drugs in the Workplace 1. EXTENT AND IMPACT OF ALCOHOL AND DRUG USE PROBLEMS IN THE WORKPLACE: A REVIEW OF THE EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE 3 Jack K. Martin, Joan M. Kraft, and Paul M. Roman 1. Work-Related Outcomes of Employees' Substance Use/Abuse Patterns 4 2. Occupational Influences on Employees' Substance Usel Abuse Patterns 9 3. Estimates of Workers' Substance U sel Abuse Patterns Available in National Survey Data 14 4. Conclusions 24 References 26 2. PREDICTORS OF DRUG USE AND IMPLICATIONS FOR THE WORKPLACE 33 Michael D. Newcomb 1. Introduction 33 2. Etiology of Drug Use 35 3. Prevalence of Drug Use on the Job 40 4. Context and Drug Use on the Job 42 5. Polydrug Use 44 ix
x CONTENTS 6. Stage Theory of Drug Use 45 7. Relationship between Drug Use On and Off the Job 45 8. Predictors of Drug Use on the Job 46 9. General Deviance and Drug Use on the Job 49 References 51 3. A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE ESTIMATES OF THE COSTS OF ALCOHOL AND DRUG USE 57 John DiNardo 1. Introduction 57 2. Benefit-Cost Analysis 59 3. The Human Capital-Cost of Illness Approach 60 4. Does Alcohol and Drug Use Lower Productivity? 62 5. Other Related Costs 66 6. Why We Should Not Care about the Costs of Drug Abuse 68 7. The Benefits of Alcohol and Drug Use and the Role of Substitution 69 8. Conclusions 72 References 73 4. THE EFFECTS OF PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES ON WORKPLACE PERFORMANCE 77 Robert B. Coambs and Mary Pat McAndrews 1. Introduction 77 2. Drugs of Concern in the Workplace 80 3. Discussion 94 References 96 Drug Testing Programs 5. DRUG TESTING METHODS AND INTERPRETATIONS OF TEST RESULTS 103 Bhushan Kapur 1. Introduction 103 2. Drug Properties: Absorption, Distribution, and Elimination Phases 103 3. Types of Testing: Blood, Urine, and Hair Specimens 105
CONTENTS xi 4. Measuring Impairment 106 5. Urine Testing Methods 108 6. Interpretations of Test Results 114 7. Common Adulteration Methods 115 8. Laboratory Procedural and Security Standards 116 9. Initial and ConfIrmatory Testing Requirements 116 10. Summary and Conclusion 118 References 119 6. THE IMPACT AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DRUG TESTING PROGRAMS IN THE WORKPLACE 121 Scott Macdonald and Samantha Wells 1. Introduction 121 2. History and Extent of Drug Testing Programs 122 3. Impact of Testing Programs 123 4. The Effectiveness of Testing Programs 127 5. Conclusion 139 References 140 7. EVALUATION APPROACHES FOR COST-EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DRUG TESTING PROGRAMS 143 Joan A. Marshman 1. Cost-Effectiveness Analysis (CEA) 145 2. Program Effectiveness 147 3. Program Costs 153 4. Use of CEA vs. CBA in the Economic Evaluation of Drug Testing Programs 160 References 163 Legal Issues 8. SOME LEGAL ASPECTS OF DRUG TESTING IN THE CANADIAN WORKPLACE: HUMAN RIGHTS, COLLECTIVE BARGAINING AND LABOR ARBITRATION, AND THE CANADIAN CHARTER OF RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS 165 Monique Pinsonneault 1. Human Rights 166
xii CONTENTS 2. Collective Bargaining and Labor Arbitration 171 3. The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms 177 References 183 9. CONSTITUTIONAL AND STATUTORY TREATMENT OF DRUG TESTING IN THE UNITED STATES 185 Risa L. Lieberwitz 1. Introduction 185 2. Fourth Amendment Principles 186 3. Expansion of the Balancing Test 189 4. The Supreme Court on Drug Testing 192 5. The Federal Courts after Skinner and Von Raab 195 6. Drug Testing under State Laws 199 7. Analysis and Implications 201 References 203 10. ARBITRATION OF DRUG TESTING DISPUTES 205 Tia Schneider Denenberg and R. V. Denenberg 1. Introduction 205 2. The Occasion for Testing 206 3. Chain of Custody and Laboratory Analysis 214 4. Proving Just Cause 221 References 227 Other Workplace Programs 11. BEHAVIORAL TESTS TO ASSESS PERFORMANCE 231 Barbara Butler and David Tranter 1. Introduction 231 2. Drug Evaluation and Classification (DEC) Program 233 3. Computerized Impairment Tests 235 4. In-Vehicle Detectors: In-Field Application of Computer Tests 248 5. Overall Conclusions 250 References 253
CONTENTS xiii 12. ALTERNATIVES TO DRUG TESTING: EMPLOYEE ASSISTANCE AND HEALTH PROMOTION PROGRAMS 257 Martin Shain 1. Introduction 257 2. The Objectives of Drug Testing and Screening 258 3. The Objectives of Employee Assistance Programs 260 4. The Objectives of Health Promotion Policies and Programs in the Workplace 265 5. Comprehensive Health and Assistance Policies and Programs 272 6. Conclusion 274 References 274 13. THE INTERRELATIONS OF DRUG TESTING WITH OTHER HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AND ORGANIZATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS 279 Terry C. Blum, Dail L. Fields, Stuart H. Milne, and Chester S. Spell 1. The Human Resource Management System 2. Research Results from a Survey of Work Sites 3. Conclusion 301 References 301 280 283 PART II. PERSPECTIVES ON DRUG TESTING 14. UNION PERSPECTIVES ON WORKPLACE DRUG TESTING 305 Shahid Alvi 1. Introduction 305 2. The Labor Relations Context 306 3. Union Perspectives on Drug Testing in the Workplace 308 4. Union Solutions: Education and Joint EAPs 316 5. Conclusion 317 References 317 15. DRUG TESTING, THE WAR ON DRUGS, WORKERS, AND THE WORKPLACE: PERSPECTIVES FROM SOCIOLOGY 319 Judith C. Blackwell 1. Introduction 319
xiv CONTENTS 2. The War on Drugs in Historical Perspective. 320 3. Changes of Emphasis in the 1980s 321 4. Drug Screening in the Workplace and Economic Policy 325 5. The War on Drugs and Anomalous Aspects of a Social Policy 327 6. Perspectives from Sociology: Some Conduding Observations 330 References 331 INDEX 335