Social Psychology and Health Twixt the optimist and the pessimist the difference is droll: The optimist sees the doughnut but the pessimist sees the hole. McLandburgh Wilson, 1915 Source of image: Microsoft Office Online.
STRESS AND HUMAN HEALTH 1. When people undergo a major upheaval in their lives, such as losing a spouse, declaring bankruptcy, or being forced to resettle in a new culture, their chance of dying increases. 2. Soon after a major earthquake in the Los Angeles area, the number of people who died suddenly of heart attacks increased. 3. Many people experienced psychological and physical problems after the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. How do these stress effects occur? How can we learn to cope most effectively?
Resilience Resilience Mild, transient reactions to stressful events, followed by a quick return to normal, healthy functioning. Although life's traumas can be painful, many people have the resources to recover quickly. Surprisingly few people show prolonged, negative reactions to the most terrible events.
Effects of Negative Life Events Hans Selye (1956, 1976) defined stress as the body s physiological response to threatening events. Stress The negative feelings and beliefs that arise whenever people feel unable to cope with demands from their environment. Source of image: Microsoft Office Online.
Effects of Negative Life Events Selye focused on how the human body adapts to threats from the environment, regardless of the source, whether psychological or physiological. Later researchers have examined what it is about a life event that makes it threatening. Source of image: Microsoft Office Online.
Effects of Negative Life Events Holmes and Rahe (1967), for example, suggested that stress is the degree to which people have to change and readjust their lives in response to an external event. This definition of stress applies to happy events as well, if the event causes big changes in one s daily routine. Source of image: Microsoft Office Online.
Effects of Negative Life Events Holmes and Rahe (1967) developed a measure called the Social Readjustment Rating Scale. Participants get a list of life events, such as "divorce" and "trouble with boss," each of which has been assigned a certain number of points, depending on how stressful it is. People check the events that have happened to them in the past year and add up the points associated with these events, to get an overall "life change" score. Several studies have found that the higher the people s score, the worse their mental and physical health.
Being raped; or Finding out that you are HIV-positive 100 Being accused of rape 98 Death of a close friend 97 Death of a close family member 96 Contracting a sexually transmitted disease (other than AIDS) 94 Concerns about being pregnant 91 Finals week; or concerns about your partner being pregnant 90 Oversleeping for an exam; or flunking a class 89 Having a boyfriend or girlfriend cheat on you; ending a steady date relationship; or serious illness in family 85 Financial difficulties 84 Writing a major term paper; or being caught cheating on a test 83 Drunk driving; or sense of overload in school or work 82 Two exams in one day 80 Cheating on your boyfriend or girlfriend 77 Getting married 76 Negative consequences of drinking or drug use 75 Depression or crisis in your best friend; or difficulties with parents 73 Talking in front of a class 72 Lack of sleep ; change in housing (hassles, moves); competing or performing in public 69 Getting in a physical fight; or difficulties with a roommate 66 Job changes (applying, new job, work hassles); declaring a major or concerns about future plans 65 A class you hate 62 Drinking or use of drugs 61 Confrontations with professors 60
Starting a new semester 58 Going on a first date 57 Registration; or maintaining a steady dating relationship 55 Commuting to campus or work, or both 54 Peer pressures; or being away from home for the first time 53 Getting sick; or concerns about your appearance 52 Getting straight A's 51 A difficult class that you love 48 Making new friends; getting along with friends; or fraternity/sorority rush 47 Falling asleep in class 40 Attending an athletic event (e.g., football game) 20 The College Life Stress Inventory Instructions: Copy the "stress rating" number into the last column for any event that has happened to you in the past year, then add these scores.
Perceived Stress and Health Measures such as the College Life Stress Inventory have problems: Subjective situations have more impact on people than objective situations. Individuals vary in response to different situations. Most studies on stress effects use correlational findings, not experimental.
Stress and Illness Who gets sick when exposed to cold virus? Cohen, Tyrrel & Smith (1991) - participants spent week at facility - stress reactions to negative events - exposed to rinovirus or placebo drops -spent week in quarantine (ethics) - see results on next slide
Feeling in Charge: The Importance of Perceived Control Internal-External Locus of Control The tendency to believe that things happen because we control them versus believing that good and bad outcomes are out of our control. Perceived Control The belief that we can influence our environment in ways that determine whether we experience positive or negative outcomes.
College students are becoming convinced that good and bad things in life are outside their control.
Increasing Perceived Control in Nursing Homes Even a small boost in feelings of control can prolong life. 18 months after nursing home residents were given simple control over a movie night and watering a plant, 15% had died compared to 30% not given choices.
Disease, Control, and Well-Being 1. The relationship between perceived control and distress is more important to members of Western cultures than members of Asian cultures. 2. Even in Western societies, there is a danger in exaggerating the relationship between perceived control and health.
Knowing You Can Do It: Self-Efficacy Self-Efficacy Believing that we have control over our lives is one thing; believing that we can actually execute the specific behaviors that will get us what we want is another. The belief in one s ability to carry out specific actions that produce desired outcomes.
Knowing You Can Do It: Self-Efficacy People s level of self-efficacy has been found to predict a number of important health behaviors, such as the likelihood that they will: quit smoking lose weight lower cholesterol exercise regularly Source of image: Microsoft Office Online.
Knowing You Can Do It: Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy helps in two ways. 1. It influences our persistence and effort at a task. 2. Self-efficacy influences the way our bodies react while we are working toward our goals. Source of image: Microsoft Office Online.
Knowing You Can Do It: Self-Efficacy In short, self-efficacy operates as a kind of self-fulfilling prophecy. The more you believe that you can accomplish something, such as quitting smoking, the greater the likelihood that you will. Source of image: Microsoft Office Online.
Other people can help us gain self-efficacy (Blittner, Goldberg, & Merbaum, 1978).
COPING WITH STRESS
Coping Styles The ways in which people react to threatening events. Source of image: Microsoft Office Online.
Fight-or-Flight Response Responding to stress by either attacking the source of the stress or fleeing from it. Tend-and-Befriend Response Responding to stress with nurturant activities designed to protect oneself and one s offspring (tending) and creating social networks that provide protection from threats (befriending).
Gender Differences in Coping with Stress Shelley Taylor and her colleagues (2000) pointed out a little-known fact about research on the fight-or-flight syndrome: Most of it has been done on males. Tending has a number of benefits for a mother and her child (e.g., a quiet child is less likely to be noticed by predators, and nurturing behavior leads to lower stress and improved immune functioning in mammals). Befriending involves the creation of close ties with other members of the species, which also confers a number of advantages.
Social Support: Getting Help from Others Social Support The perception that others are responsive and receptive to one s needs. People who have someone to lean on deal better with life s problems and show improved health. Source of image: Microsoft Office Online.
Social Support: Getting Help from Others People who live in cultures that stress interdependence and collectivism suffer less from stress-related diseases than people who live in cultures that stress individualism, possibly because it is easier for people in collectivist cultures to obtain social support. Source of image: Microsoft Office Online.
Social Support: Getting Help from Others Interestingly, it is not just receiving social support but giving it that is beneficial: A study of people 65 and over found that those who gave support to others, such as helping family members with child care or doing errands for a neighbor, lived longer than people who did not.
Social Support: Getting Help from Others According to the buffering hypothesis, we need social support only when we are under stress. Social support can help us interpret an event as less stressful than we otherwise would. Even if we do interpret an event as stressful, social support can help us cope.
Personality and Coping Styles Evidence indicates optimistic people react better to stress and are generally healthier than pessimists. Most people feel bad events are less likely to happen to them than to other people. Unrealistic optimism, however, can leave people unprepared for problems.
Personality and Coping Styles Type A Personality The type of person who is typically competitive, impatient, hostile, and control-oriented, when confronting a challenge. Source of image: Microsoft Office Online.
Personality and Coping Styles Type B Personality The type of person who is typically patient, relaxed, and noncompetitive when confronting a challenge. Source of image: Microsoft Office Online.
Personality and Coping Styles Type A people s hard-driving, competitive approach to life pays off in some respects: 1. They tend to get good grades in college and to be successful in their careers. However, this success comes with some costs. 2. Type A individuals spend relatively little time on nonwork activities and have more trouble in balancing their work and family lives. 3. Further, numerous studies show that Type A individuals are more prone than Type B people to developing coronary heart disease.
Personality and Coping Styles Subsequent studies have tried to narrow down what it is about the Type A personality that is most related to heart disease. The most likely culprit is hostility. Competitiveness and a fast-paced life might not be so bad by themselves, but for a person who is chronically hostile, they increase the risk for coronary disease.
Personality and Coping Styles You are more likely to be Type A if You are male, Your parents are Type A, and You live in an urban rather than a rural area. Source of image: Microsoft Office Online.
Personality and Coping Styles There is a higher rate of coronary disease in many Western cultures than in many Asian cultures, such as Japan. In Western cultures, where individualism and competitiveness are prized, personality types more like Type A might be encouraged. People who live in cultures that stress collectivism might have more support from other people when they experience stress, and as we have seen, such social support is a valuable way of making stress more manageable.
PREVENTION: PROMOTING HEALTHIER BEHAVIOR
Preventable Health Problems People could improve their health behaviors in many other areas as well, such as: alcohol consumption smoking overeating Source of image: Microsoft Office Online.
Preventable Health Problems Binge drinkers are more likely to have a number of life-threatening problems: high blood pressure heart disease meningitis car accidents drowning sexually transmitted diseases domestic violence
Social Psychological Interventions: Targeting Safer Sex A review of the more than 350 interventions designed to promote safer sex confirmed that it works to increase people's self-efficacy about condom use. Other approaches work as well, such as interventions based on the theory of planned behavior, which try to increase: (a) desirability of condom use (b) perceived normative pressures to use condoms (c) perceptions that condom use is controllable
Social Psychological Interventions: Targeting Safer Sex Another type of intervention that has been successful is one that frames the message in terms of gains (e.g., If you use condoms, you can stay healthy and avoid sexually transmitted diseases ) instead of losses (e.g., If you don t use condoms, you could get AIDS ).
Social Psychological Interventions: Targeting Safer Sex 1. When trying to get people to behave in positive ways that will prevent disease, it is best to use a gain frame, emphasizing what they have to gain by engaging in these behaviors. 2. When trying to get people to detec the presence of a disease, it is best to use a loss frame, emphasizing what they have to lose by avoiding this behavior.