Lecturer: Dr. Emmanuel Adjei Department of Information Studies Contact Information: eadjei@ug.edu.gh College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 2016/2017
Session Overview Research design is a detailed framework or plan that helps to guide you through the research process. This Lesson emphasizes the nature and different types of research design available to the student and the researcher. In this regard we identify and explain the different types of research design under Qualitative and Quantitative Research. Understanding the various types is all very well, but it is important to determine which is appropriate for your research, since a number of factors are likely to determine your research design. Slide 2
Session Objectives Objectives By the end of this Session, the student should be able to Define and explain the term research design and why it is important to researchers Explain the different types of research design Explain how these designs contribute to research in terms of structure, data collection method, analysis and interpretation Apply the different research designs to the conduct of research Slide 3
Session Outline The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows: Defining and Explaining Research Design The Three Traditional Categories of Research Design / Types of Research Study Quantitative Research Designs Qualitative Research Designs Slide 4
Defining and Explaining Research Design What is Research Design? Research design is simply the framework or plan for a study, used to guide in collecting and analysing data. Research design is a set of advanced decisions that make up the master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed information. Slide 5
Defining and Explaining Research Design Fundamental Requirements WHAT will be studied? WHY will it be studied? HOW will it be studied Slide 6
Defining and Explaining Research Design WHAT research strategy will be used? WHERE will the data come from? HOW will the data be collected and analysed? WHEN will each stage of the research be carried out? Slide 7
Defining and Explaining Research Design Core Elements of Research Design Topic Problem Objectives Research Questions Concepts, Theories, Hypotheses Data Sources, Types and Forms Selection from Data sources Data Collection and Timing Data Reduction and Analysis Slide 8
Defining and Explaining Research Design Research design must, at least, contain: (a) a clear statement of the Research Problem (b) Procedures and Techniques to be used for gathering information (c) the Population to be studied (d) Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data Slide 9
Types of Research Design Three traditional categories: oexploratory odescriptive ocausal The choice of the most appropriate design depends largely on the objectives of the research and how much is known about the problem and research objectives. Slide 10
Types of Research Design Exploratory Research Exploratory research is most commonly unstructured, informal research that is undertaken to gain background information about the general nature of the research problem. By unstructured, we mean there is no formal set of objectives, sample plan, or questionnaire. It is usually conducted when the researcher does not know much about the problems. Slide 11
Types of Research Design Descriptive Research Is undertaken to find answers to questions of who, what, where, when, and how. (Eg. Surveys Research). Descriptive research is desirable when we wish to project a study s findings to a larger population, if the study s sample is representative. Slide 12
Types of Research Design Causal Research Causality may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in terms of conditional statements of the form If x, then y. Causal research aims to determine cause and effect relationship. Eg. Does increase in advertising spending (cause) leads to an increase in sales? (effect). Slide 13
Types of Research Design According to Dick et al (2008: 695) causality is usually accepted in empirical research as requiring three conditions: 1. There is an association between variables that logically might influence one another 2. The causal variable must produce its influence before the outcome occurs 3. Other possible explanations must be eliminated, such as a third variable that influence both the dependent and independent variables Slide 14
Quantitative and Qualitative Research Designs Qualitative Research Looks at non-numerical data Often done on a smaller group of people Looking in-depth at a few subjects instead of examining a large numbers of people with less depth. Guided by Research questions Uses qualitative data collection instruments Employs qualitative data analysis techniques Quantitative Research Looks at data with numerical value Measures objective facts Focuses on variables Many cases Test of Hypothesis Statistical analysis Slide 15
Qualitative Research Designs Examples Case Study Research Ethnography Historical Research Phenomenology Grounded Theory Slide 16
Case Study Design Case Study Design A case study is an intensive and in-depth investigation of a single unit of study. The single unit may be a single subject such as a family, school, a community, or a hospital. Case study is a strategy for doing research which involves an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon with its real life context using multiple sources of evidence. Yin, 1981 Slide 17
Case Study Design Features of Case Study A research strategy Focuses on Empirical investigation It focuses on contemporary phenomenon Studies phenomenon in its real life context It relies multiple sources of evidence Slide 18
Case Study Design Designing the Case Study Defines area of study Identifies setting or context of study Specifies the kinds of data to be collected Describes methods to be used Provides the researcher s rationale for undertaking the study Identifies the study s potential contribution(s) Slide 19
Case Study Design Case studies are classified according to the focus of study. This can include: Individuals Communities Social groups Organizations and institutions, and Events, roles, relationships, and interactions. Slide 20
Case Study Design Case studies can be: Exploratory Explanatory Descriptive (Yin, 1994) Case studies can be used to: Provide description Test theory Generate theory (Eisenhardt, 1989). Slide 21
Ethnography Ethnographic Research This type of research has its roots from anthropology. It focuses on the study of cultures and the life-ways in natural settings An attempt to attain as holistic a picture as possible of a particular society, group, institution, or situation. The emphasis in ethnographic research is on documenting or portraying the everyday experiences of individuals by observing and interviewing them and relevant others. (Frankel & Wallen, 2006) Slide 22
Provides a detailed description of culture-sharing group being studied. An analysis of the group in terms of perceived themes or perspectives. Interpretation of the group by the researcher as to the meanings or generalizations about the social life of human beings in general. Slide 23
Sampling De Facto Sample Sample Size Typically Small No Generalization of Results Replication of Findings can Best be Determined by Replication of Their Work in other Settings or Situations by other Researchers. Slide 24
Data Collection 1. Participant Observation a. Field Notes b. Field Jottings c. Reflective Field Notes 2. Interviewing a. Structured b. Semi-structured c. Informal d. Retrospective Slide 25
Quantitative Research Designs Quantitative Research Designs Survey Research Experimental Design Correlational Studies Slide 26
Survey Research Design What Is A Survey? Why Are Surveys Conducted? Types of Surveys Correlational Research Steps In Survey Research Nonresponse Problems With The Instrument Evaluating Threats To Internal Validity Data Analysis Journal Article Employing Survey Research Slide 27
Survey Research Design Why Are Surveys Conducted? 1. Surveys are primarily used to describe characteristics of a population. 2. Researchers use surveys to examine the distribution of the identified characteristics within the population. 3. The description of the population as a whole is inferred by the results obtained from the sample. Slide 28
Survey Research Design Useful Surveys (Arlene Fink, 1995) 1. Specific, measurable objectives 2. Sound research design 3. Sound choice of population or sample 4. Reliable and valid 5. Appropriate analysis 6. Accurate reporting of results Slide 29
Survey Research Design Types of Surveys There are two major types of surveys. Cross-Sectional Surveys & Longitudinal Surveys Slide 30
1. Cross-Sectional Research Design Information is collected at approximately one point in time Explanation occurs by examining differences across the units of analysis. Example: The hypothesis worker satisfaction increases worker productivity is measured for 100 individuals in an organization at one point in time. This is tested by the correlation between satisfaction and productivity for the 100 individuals. Slide 31
2. Longitudinal Surveys Information is collected at different points in time to study changes that occur over a time period Explanation occurs by examining differences across time. Example: Worker satisfaction and worker productivity are measured for 100 individuals over a period of time. The hypothesis is tested by examining changes in worker satisfaction and changes in productivity across time for the 100 individuals. Slide 32
Types of Longitudinal Studies Trend Study samples a population whose members may change over the course of the study Cohort Study - samples a population whose members do not change over the course of the study Panel Study survey the same sample of a population at different times during the course of the study Slide 33
Trend Studies / Time Series A longitudinal study that examines changes in a population across time. Each study collects data from different individuals in the same population. Example: In 2003, 1,000 people are asked for their support of same-sex marriage. In 2013, a different set of 1,000 people are asked for their support of same-sex marriage. The difference in opinions is the trend in support for same-sex marriage. Slide 34
Panel Studies A longitudinal study that examines changes in individuals across time. Each study collects data from the same individuals at different times. Example: In 2003, 1,000 people are asked for their support of same-sex marriage. In 2013, the same 1,000 people are asked for their support of same-sex marriage. The difference in opinions is the change in support for same-sex marriage. Slide 35
Cohort Studies A longitudinal study that examines changes in a cohort across time. Each study collects data from individuals within the same cohort. Example: In 2003, 1,000 people, ages 18-37, are asked for their support of same-sex marriage. In 2013, a different set of 1,000 people, ages 28-47, are asked for their support of same-sex marriage. The difference in opinions is the cohort support for same-sex marriage within this cohort of individuals. Slide 36
Steps In Survey Research 1. Define the problem 2. Identify the population 3. Choose the type of instrument to collect the data 4. Design, construct, pilot and refine the instrument 5. Select a representative sample 6. Administer the survey 7. Analyze, interpret, and communicate your findings Slide 37
Experimental Research Design An experiment is defined as manipulating an independent variable to see how it affects a dependent variable, while also controlling the effects of additional extraneous variables. Independent variables are those variables which the researcher has control over and wishes to manipulate. Dependent variables are those variables that we have little or no direct control over, yet we have a strong interest in. Slide 38
Extraneous variables are those variables that may have some effect on a dependent variable yet are not independent variables. Extraneous variables must be controlled through proper experimental design. Slide 39
Experimental design is a procedure for devising an experimental setting such that a change in a dependent variable may be attributed solely to the change in an independent variable Generally, one or more variables are manipulated to determine their effect on a dependent variable. Experimental research is commonly used in sciences such as sociology and psychology, physics, chemistry, biology and medicine etc. Slide 40
Components of Experimental Design (1) pre-test-post-test design (2) a treatment group and a control group (3) random assignment of study participants. Slide 41
Pre-test refers to the measurement of the dependent variable taken prior to changing the independent variable. Post-test refers to measuring the dependent variable after changing the independent variable. Slide 42
A True Experimental Design A true experimental design is one that truly isolates the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable while controlling for the effects of any extraneous variables. A control group is a group whose subjects have not been exposed to the change in the independent variable. An experimental group is a group that has been exposed to a change in the experimental variable. Slide 43
Slide 44
CASE 1 An investigator wants to evaluate whether a new technique for teaching math to elementary school pupils is more effective than the standard teaching method. Using an experimental design the investigator divides the class randomly (by chance) into two groups and calls them Group A and Group B. The students cannot chose their own group. The random assignment process results in two groups the should share equal characteristics, at the beginning of the experiment. In Group A the teacher uses a new technique or method to teach the math lesson. In Group B he uses the standard teaching method to teach the math lesson. Slide 45
CASE 1 continued. The investigator compares the test scores at the end of each semester to evaluate the success of the new teaching method compared to the standard teaching method. At the end of the study, the results indicated that students in the new method group scored significantly higher on their final exam than student in the standard teaching method group. Slide 46
The vast majority of survey research projects are studies at a single point in time of a specified population, such as employees, customers or the general public. Fewer web survey designs track opinions over time. This post outlines the different types of surveys carried out by researchers. Point-in-time surveys are called cross-sectional studies. They study a single population or sample size during a single specified time-frame, and give us a snapshot of opinion data. Cross-sectional surveys comprise the largest number of projects that are undertaken. Longitudinal surveys, on the other hand, are those which study trends over time, and usually consist of cohorts or panel respondents. These can be further classified into three distinct types of longitudinal designs (trend, cohort and panel). Trend studies focus on the same population of people use opinion poll surveys to look at their attitudes over time. While the population is always the same, trend studies usually select different market research survey samples from that population. Cohort research is a method in which a specific population is studied repeatedly as well, but these studies center around how given groups with a common characteristic view social phenomena over time. A common cohort design uses a class of students as its population. For example, the freshman class of 2008 would be given a survey, and then the freshman class of 2009 at the same school would be given the same survey, and any differences in opinion would be noted. Panel studies utilize the same sample from the same population over time. While more complicated and difficult to carry out, this is the best design to truly find out changes over time, because you are tracking opinions of the exact same respondents repeatedly. Slide 47