Motivating children in and out of school: Research findings and practical implications

The Question Does promoting motivation toward activities in school lead to increased motivation toward activities outside of school?

The problem Growing problem of behaviour-related chronic conditions in industrialised nations Cardiovascular disease Diabetes Obesity Preventable illnesses with epidemiological research linked to Low levels of physical activity Diet high in energy and saturated fat

The problem

Obesity Among Adults in the U.S. 1985 No Data <10% 10%-14% 15%-19% 20%-24% 25%-29% >30% Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, CDC

Obesity Among Adults in the U.S. 1986 No Data <10% 10%-14% 15%-19% 20%-24% 25%-29% >30% Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, CDC

Obesity Among Adults in the U.S. 1987 No Data <10% 10%-14% 15%-19% 20%-24% 25%-29% >30% Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, CDC

Obesity Among Adults in the U.S. 1988 No Data <10% 10%-14% 15%-19% 20%-24% 25%-29% >30% Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, CDC

Obesity Among Adults in the U.S. 1989 No Data <10% 10%-14% 15%-19% 20%-24% 25%-29% >30% Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, CDC

Obesity Among Adults in the U.S. 1990 No Data <10% 10%-14% 15%-19% 20%-24% 25%-29% >30% Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, CDC

Obesity Among Adults in the U.S. 1991 No Data <10% 10%-14% 15%-19% 20%-24% 25%-29% >30% Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, CDC

Obesity Among Adults in the U.S. 1992 No Data <10% 10%-14% 15%-19% 20%-24% 25%-29% >30% Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, CDC

Obesity Among Adults in the U.S. 1993 No Data <10% 10%-14% 15%-19% 20%-24% 25%-29% >30% Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, CDC

Obesity Among Adults in the U.S. 1994 No Data <10% 10%-14% 15%-19% 20%-24% 25%-29% >30% Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, CDC

Obesity Among Adults in the U.S. 1995 No Data <10% 10%-14% 15%-19% 20%-24% 25%-29% >30% Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, CDC

Obesity Among Adults in the U.S. 1996 No Data <10% 10%-14% 15%-19% 20%-24% 25%-29% >30% Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, CDC

Obesity Among Adults in the U.S. 1997 No Data <10% 10%-14% 15%-19% 20%-24% 25%-29% >30% Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, CDC

Obesity Among Adults in the U.S. 1998 No Data <10% 10%-14% 15%-19% 20%-24% 25%-29% >30% Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, CDC

Obesity Among Adults in the U.S. 1999 No Data <10% 10%-14% 15%-19% 20%-24% 25%-29% >30% Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, CDC

Obesity Among Adults in the U.S. 2000 No Data <10% 10%-14% 15%-19% 20%-24% 25%-29% >30% Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, CDC

Obesity Among Adults in the U.S. 2001 No Data <10% 10%-14% 15%-19% 20%-24% 25%-29% >30% Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, CDC

Obesity Among Adults in the U.S. 2004-2006 No Data <10% 10%-14% 15%-19% 20%-24% 25%-29% >30% Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, CDC

An obesity epidemic

An obesity epidemic Increase in levels of obesity in adults and young people in industrialised nations 1.5 million Australians (25%) under the age 18 are considered overweight or obese Similar patterns in some Asian countries Obesity in Singapore increased from 6.9% in 2004 to 10.8% in 2010 (National Health Survey, 2010) Juvenile obesity in Singapore is at 12% (Singapore Ministry of Health, 2010)

Physical Activity and Prevention Physical activity has positive benefits on: Cardiovascular health (Raitakari et al., 2001) Skeletal health (Branca, 1999) Psychological health, e.g. Positive affect (Mihalko et al., 1996) Self-esteem (Fox, 2000) Psychological well-being (Biddle et al., 2000) Reduction in depression, neurotics (Faulkner & Biddle, 2004)

And Now the Bad News People in developed nations do not participate in enough physical activity of the type, intensity and frequency of physical activity thought to provide health benefits Biddle, Cavill & Sallis (1999) 54.1% of Singaporeans do not take sufficient exercise NHS(2010)

Children s Physical Activity Levels Levels of CVD risk factors and obesity increasing among children (Stice et al., 2006) Strong evidence linking PA to children s health (Ross et al., 2000) Low levels of vigorous PA and in young people (Cale & Harris, 2006) Need to enhance PA levels in young people using existing networks (Fox, 2000)

The Solution (?) Governments have adopted numerous preventive solutions to the problem: Medical intervention (e.g., surgery) Environmental changes (e.g., cycling paths, parks) Social marketing campaigns (e.g., TV advertisements) Lack of a co-ordinated approach Poorly financed Not based on understanding of human behaviour - psychology

The Solution (?) Assumptions made in policy and practice e.g. physical activity interventions: Raising awareness Giving advice Messages (scaring people) Overdependence on biological influences and outcomes Need for a theoretical approach that focuses on mechanisms or processes Moving away for just identifying what Need to identify the why and the how

Formative research Answering the what and how questions Basic research in exercise psychology essential to understand Personal and social factors ( what ) attitudes, confidence, enjoyment etc. Mechanisms responsible ( how ) mediation and moderation Targets for intervention what do we have to change to bring about change?

Formative research Using Social Psychology to Understand Physical Activity Theory of Planned Behaviour and Self- Determination Theory Theoretical principles Predicting physical activity How do we use this practically?

Theory of Planned Behaviour and Physical Activity Attitudes General orientation towards health behaviour good-bad, useful-useless, harmful-beneficial Stated volitional plans I plan /I intend.../ I expect... Subjective Norms Intentions Behaviour Perceived Control Evaluation of others evaluation my mum thinks, my teacher thinks Evaluation of capacities/barriers/abilities self-efficacy / easy-difficult Hagger, Chatzisarantis, & Biddle (2002) Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology

Theory of Planned Behaviour and Physical Activity Summary: Attitudes and perceived control (self-efficacy) important Effects of attitude and control on behaviour mediated by intention Attitude, control and intention mediate the impact of past behaviour on future behaviour Sources: Albarracin et al., 2001; Armitage & Conner (2001); Godin & Kok, 1996; Hagger et al., 2002; Hagger & Chatzisarantis (2009); Hausenblas et al., 1997

What does this mean for interventions? How do we use this evidence? Changing attitudes and perceived control means changes in intentions and behaviour But how? Attitudes: Provide information, persuasion Control: Efficacy experiences

Changing attitudes and perceived control Attitudes: Identify salient beliefs what are the outcomes important to kids Control: Identify salient facilitating factors/barriers Free response, open ended questionnaires and interviews Identify through content analysis

Salient beliefs What do kids think of exercise? *WORKSHOP EXERCISE *List the advantages of doing regular physical activities/sports *Now, list the disadvantages of doing regular physical activities/sports Hagger et al. (2001) J. Sports Sciences

Changing attitudes Important beliefs about outcomes of physical activity in children : Enjoyment Socialise Learn/perfect new skills Gain fitness/feel better Escapism Avoid feelings of discomfort Avoid embarrassment/being shown up Hagger et al. (2001) J. Sports Sciences

Salient barriers and impediments *WORKSHOP EXERCISE *List the things that get in the way of doing regular physical activities/sports *Now, list things that would help you do regular physical activities/sports Hagger et al. (2001) J. Sports Sciences

Changing perceived control Important facilitators/barriers to physical activity in children: Confidence/ I can... Encouragement/support Time Bad weather Lack of equipment/facilities Boredom Hagger et al. (2001) J. Sports Sciences

Try the same activity for another important learning outcome *WORKSHOP EXERCISE *List the disadvantages & things that get in the way of doing homework *Now, list the advantages & that would help you do homework Hagger et al. (2001) J. Sports Sciences

So what do we need to do? Teachers need to provide information & activities to: Promote attitudes Enhance enjoyment (variation,novelty) Stimulate interaction (friends) Dispel bad experiences (feeling incompetent) Promote control Reduce barriers Provide competency experiences

Self-Determination Theory Need for Competence Need for Autonomy Need for Competence Type of Motivation Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation Perceived Locus of Causality Scale Intrinsic Motivation Identification Introjection External regulation Defining Features For enjoyment, pleasure and fun; no discernible reinforcement. For personallyheld values such as learning new skills, resulting in feelings satisfaction; High internalization For avoiding external sources, of disapproval (guilt) or gaining externally referenced approval (self-esteem) For external reinforcement such as gaining rewards or avoiding punishment.

So How Does this Fit in with the Theory of Planned Behaviour? Limitations of TPB: What are the origins of attitudes and perceived behavioural control? What are the mechanisms/processes involved?

Theory of Planned Behaviour and Self-Determination Theory Beliefs about outcomes (attitudes) can be intrinsic or extrinsic People can and do make the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic beliefs E.g. young people provided 3 reasons for doing physical activity: Appearance-related reasons = extrinsic Other reasons = intrinsic Significant correlation (r =.27) between explicit measures of intrinsic motivation and reasons Source: McLachlan & Hagger (2011) RQES

Theory of Planned Behaviour and Self-Determination Theory Doing tasks/activities to avoid punishment, e.g. I do this task because I will be punished if I don t External Introjection Intrinsic Attitude Subjective.43.74 Norm Intention Behaviour.37.71 Perceived Control.41 Doing tasks/activities to avoid guilt, e.g. I do this task because I will feel guilty if I don t.45 Doing activities for personal value or pleasure, e.g. I do this task because I enjoy it Source: Hagger, Chatzisarantis and Biddle (2002) BJHP

Theory of Planned Behaviour and Self-Determination Theory.06 Attitude.63.50 Self-determined motivation.23 Social Norms.07.61 Intention Behavior.56 Perceived Control.35 Sources: Hagger et al. (2006) Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin Hagger & Chatzisarantis (2009) British Journal of Health Psychology

So what do we need to do? Present information on physical activity to Promote autonomy *WORKSHOP EXERCISE: How do we support autonomy? What behaviours /activities should we see? Promote control *WORKSHOP EXERCISE: How do we promote control? What behaviours /activities should we see?

So what do we need to do? Present information on physical activity to support kids needs: Promote autonomy Choice of activities Questioning/didactic approach Dispel bad experiences (changing rooms) and promote enjoyable experiences Promote control Reduce barriers Competency experiences

What does this mean for interventions? How do we use this evidence? Promote autonomy, competence and relatedness But how? Autonomy support: Choice, enjoyment Structure: Competence experiences, personal goals Involvement: Personal input, social support, feedback

The value of existing networks Promoting physical activity in children is a challenge Need to use existing networks to maximise coverage (e.g., youth clubs, social clubs, family physicians, school) Much focus on school Physical Education Experiences in PE can be negative/counterproductive Interventions have targeted PE to get messages across Seldom examined effect of promoting physical activity in PE on activity outside of school

Trans-contextual model The trans-contextual model: Motivation in PE Motivation outside of school Aims to address the question: Does promoting motivation toward physical activity in school lead to increased motivation toward physical activity outside of school? Is so, then it follows that: Interventions to promoting motivation toward physical activity in school should promote physical activity outside of school Series of 4 studies Testing effects of PE teacher support for motivation toward PA in school on motivation toward physical activity and actual behaviour outside of school Intervention based on the model to promote motivation and actual PA in PE and outside of school

Study Hypotheses Aims to address the question does motivation in one context lead to motivation in another e.g. PE Leisure Time Autonomy support in PE will influence selfdetermined motives in a PE-context Motives in PE will lead to self-deterimined motives in a leisure-time context Motives in leisure-time will influence exercise intentions and behaviour A motivational sequence (Vallerand, 2000)

Study 1: Design Time 1 PE context (1) SDT: Perceived Autonomy Support (2) PLOC: External Introjection Identification Intrinsic 1 week Time 2 (1) TPB: Intentions Attitudes Subjective Norm Perceived Control (2) PLOC: External Introjection Identification Intrinsic Time Leisure-time context 5 weeks Time 3 Leisure Time Exercise Behaviour

Study 1: Important effects Attitude Perceived Autonomy Support Autonomous Motives Autonomous Motives Intention Behaviour Control Time 1: Physical Education Context Time 2: Leisure-Time Context Hagger, Chatzisarantis, Culverhouse, & Biddle (2003) Journal of Educational Psychology Time 3: Physical Activity Behaviour

Study 1 Summary The proposed motivational sequence was supported If autonomy is supported in a PE context it is more likely that children will pursue exercise outside of school Decision-making variables i.e. intentions and attitudes translate autonomy support into behaviour

Study 2 The proposed motivational sequence was replicated in 4 cultural groups British Greek Singaporean Polish Secondary school pupils Hagger, Chatzisarantis, Barkoukis, Wang, & Baranowski, (2005) Journal of Educational Psychology

Hagger, Chatzisarantis, Hein, Pihu, Soos, & Karsai, (2009) Psychology and Health Study 3 Examined the unique effects of perceived autonomy support from PE teachers in the trans-contextual model controlling for effects of autonomy support from Peers Parents Studied in three cultural groups British Estonian Hungarian

Study 3: Results Perceived Autonomy Support (Peers) Attitude Perceived Autonomy Support (PE Teachers) Autonomous Motives Autonomous Motives Intention Behaviour Time 1: Physical Education Context Perceived.10 Autonomy Support (Parents) Control Time 2: Leisure-Time Context Time 3: Physical Activity Behaviour

Study 3 Summary The original motivational sequence was supported Additional sources of autonomy support had pervasive influence on motivation and TPB variables in all samples However, autonomy support from PE teachers still had unique effect on autonomous motivation

Study 4 Hypothesis: Aimed to support TCM hypotheses in an RCT in the field Design: 3 intervention groups: TCM intervention (teachers provide autonomy support) TPB intervention (teachers provide belief-based support) Information only Chatzisarantis & Hagger (2009) Psychology and Health

First step: Mapping of intervention components Theory Construct Intervention component TPB Attitudes Persuasive communication targeting SALIENT beliefs TPB Perceived control Reduce BARRIERS and efficacy experience Self-determination theory Autonomous motivation CHOICE, personal goals, and competence experiences

Second step: Training on intervention components Intervention components teachers provided with instruction to: SDT adopt a democratic approach provide choice help set personal goals encourage questioning assist in personal development acknowledge conflicts and difficulties TPB emphasise salient beliefs dispel disadvantages and barriers promote advantages

Study 4: Results Utilizing existing networks Autonomy Support (Intervention).29 Perceived Autonomy Support (Teacher).20 Attitude.29.40 Intrinsic Motivation.20.18 Intention.69 behavior TPB (Intervention) Perceived Control.23 Source: Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Hagger, M. S. (2009). Effects of an intervention based on self-determination theory on self-reported leisure-time physical activity participation. Psychology and Health, 24, 29-48.

Study 4: Integrated Intervention Results Provision of autonomy support (SDT) provided changes in perceived autonomy support and autonomous motivation Belief-based (TPB) intervention changed attitudes Both intervention components increased behaviour Supported trans-contextual model and interventions on basis of TPB Supported the integration approach Suggestion of hybrid models of intervention (Koestner et al., 2003; Prestwich et al., 2004)

Conclusions Support for autonomy and salient beliefs are important predictors of intentions in class A theory-based approach can be translated into practice (Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2007) PE is an effective means to enhance intrinsic motivation and attitudes toward physical activity in leisure time Interventions in PE would do well to focus on autonomy support as well as supporting attitudes Future research needs to examine long-term effects on PA adherence

Beyond the trans-contextual model Need for support in other domains Maths education in the UK is a big problem Research underway to promote maths work in and out of school using belief-based and autonomysupport techniques Most important is to see whether parental support and teacher support affect motivation Adopt factorial designs so we know what s doing the work when evaluating techniques Roll it out to schools as a model of good practice