Unrestricted pore area (A 0 / x) is a better indicator of peritoneal membrane function than PET

Kidney International, Vol. 58 (2000), pp. 1773 1779 Unrestricted pore area (A 0 / x) is a better indicator of peritoneal membrane function than PET EVA JOHNSSON, ANN-CATHRINE JOHANSSON, BRITT-INGER ANDREASSON, and BÖRJE HARALDSSON Departments of Nephrology, Clinical Pharmacology, and Physiology, Göteborg University, Göteborg, Sweden Unrestricted pore area (A 0 / x) is a better indicator of perito- treated with peritoneal dialysis (PD) [3], but there is a neal membrane function than PET. great variation in the PD frequency among different Background. How to measure the peritoneal exchange in countries. In most studies, the long-term patient mortality uremic patients treated with peritoneal dialysis (PD) is still a matter of controversy. Most clinics use the peritoneal equilibrathat of hemodialysis (HD) [4, 5], even though PD is still and morbidity of PD have been shown to be similar to tion test (PET), but from a theoretical point of view, it would be more appropriate to determine the area parameter, associated with a higher rate of technique failures than A 0 / x. The latter reflects the total unrestricted pore area per HD [4, 6]. Therefore, considerable interest has been focentimeter diffusion distance and can be obtained by threecused on infectious complications [3], long-term durability pore analysis using, for example, the PD capacity test (PDC). To evaluate the different estimates of peritoneal function, PET of the peritoneal membrane [7, 8], dialysis adequacy data and the A 0 / x parameters were compared with the independently [3, 9], and metabolic side effects, such as hyperglycemia, determined uptake of a small diffusible tracer, io- hyperlipidemia, and hypoalbuminemia [10]. Indeed, a hexol (molecular weight of 821 D), from the abdominal cavity markedly reduced incidence of peritonitis together with to blood. improvements of the technical devices and PD solutions Methods. Fourteen patients on routine PD underwent deterhas contributed to enhancement of its long-term techminations of PET and A 0 / x using PDC. Within a month, the two-hour uptake of iohexol (6 mg/ml) was also determined nique survival [11 16]. from the plasma iohexol concentration following abdominal The effort to measure and individualize the dialysis filling. dose is another important factor that contributes to the Results. A strong correlation was found between the rate of iohexol plasma concentration increase (k improved clinical outcome of PD. Hence, it was recog- 30 120 ) and A 0 / x (A 0 / x 76,300 k 30 120 1.56; r 2 0.799; N 14) for the 2 L nized early that there are large differences between indidwell, while the PET data were far less related to iohexol vidual patients treated with PD regarding the exchange uptake (D/DP urea, r 2 0.409; D/P creatinine, r 2 0.436; and of solutes and fluid [17]. Moreover, there is no evident D/D0 glucose, r 2 0.015, respectively). relationship between the peritoneal capacity for dialysis Conclusion. The area parameter, A 0 / x, is superior to the more widely used routine PET as an indicator of peritoneal and external measurable variables, such as age, gender, membrane function. In addition, the concept of A 0 / x has the body weight, and/or body surface area. Different meth- virtue of supplying quantitative information about the perito- ods have therefore been introduced and aimed at estineal pathophysiology and physiology. mating the PD capacities of individual patients. The most widely used technique is the peritoneal equilibration test (PET) [18], which utilizes the dialysate over plasma After the initial description of continuous ambulatory (D/P) concentration ratios for urea, creatinine, and the peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) [1], this life-supporting ther- D/D 0 ratio for glucose to estimate peritoneal function. apy has become increasingly popular for patients with Using a 2 L dwell with an intermediate glucose concenchronic renal failure [2]. Worldwide, approximately 15% tration (22.7 mg/ml) for four hours standardizes the of the patients needing renal replacement therapy are conditions. There is also computer software that is based on PET data. Another approach to evaluate the functional Key words: iohexol, dialysis capacity, uremia, fluid exchange, pore area properties of peritoneum is to apply the personal test, CAPD, peritoneal exchange capacity. dialysis capacity (PDC) test, which is based on a threepore analysis of the peritoneal membrane [19]. Few at- Received for publication June 22, 1999 and in revised form February 25, 2000 tempts have been made to evaluate the possible medical Accepted for publication April 28, 2000 advantages of using one technique rather than the other, 2000 by the International Society of Nephrology even though most clinics routinely follow the peritoneal 1773

1774 Johnsson et al: Peritoneal exchange area and uptake of iohexol exchange as part of their quality control of patients on PD. We do know that the patients that are classified as high transporters using PET statistically have in- creased risks for morbidity and mortality [20]. The reasons for the association are presently unknown [21], although overhydration is one plausible explanation [22, 23]. The present study was undertaken to evaluate how well the two techniques, PET and PDC, estimate the peritoneal exchange capacity compared with the inde- pendently determined uptake of a small diffusible tracer, iohexol, from the abdominal cavity to blood. METHODS Study group Fourteen patients, 1 woman and 13 men (age 63 3.7 years, body weight 78 2.8 kg), with end-stage renal disease and who were on maintenance PD (treatment duration 19 3 months) participated in the investigation, which was approved by the ethical committee of Göteborg University (Göteborg, Sweden). All patients were recruited from the Sahlgrenska University Hospital, and they gave their written informed consent before entering the study. The underlying disease of the uremic condition showed the panorama that is common in a dialysis popu- lation, and each patient was regarded to be in a stable clinical condition during the time period of the study. The patients were selected to represent a wide range of peritoneal function (discussed in the Results section). Study protocol Iohexol uptake technique. The study protocol in- cluded two dwells in a crossover fashion on separate days, with dialysate volumes of 0.5 and 2 L, respectively. Each study session started with filling of fresh dialysate fluid (1.5 to 2.5% glucose) containing the tracer iohexol. Venous blood samples for analyses of iohexol were repeatedly taken immediately before the start of filling and during the subsequent two-hour dwell period at 30, 60, 90, and 120 minutes (N 5). Thereafter, the abdomen was drained, and the patient was returned to his or her ordinary PD protocol. Tracer. Standard dialysates were used, and iohexol (300 mg/ml; Omnipaque, Nycomed, Sweden) was added to reach a concentration of 6 mg/ml (40 ml Omnipaque to 2 L and 10 ml to the 0.5 L dialysate volume, respectively). Iohexol is a nonionic x-ray medium with a molecular weight of 821 D. Normally, it is eliminated from plasma in intact form by glomerular filtration (extrarenal clearance of approximately 2 ml/min) [24], but it is also removed by dialysis [25 27]. Iohexol clearance has, in some clinics, become the routine method for determination of the glomerular filtration rate, and there are no indications that iohexol influences the renal function per se [28, 29]. Iohexol concentrations in plasma were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) [30]. Also, the dialysate iohexol concentration was analyzed immediately before and directly after the PD exchange. Calculations. A small but significant background activity in plasma was subtracted from the iohexol concentrations. Moreover, the concentrations were divided by the initial concentration of iohexol in the PD fluid to correct for small variations in dose. For each patient and dialysis session, the linear regression slope was calculated for the relationship of the plasma iohexol concentration versus time. The start of dialysate filling was defined as time zero. The linear regression slope in the time interval 30 to 120 minutes (k 30 120 ) was subsequently related to the A 0 / x from the PDC test of each patient. Functional characteristics of the peritoneal membrane For each patient, the PDC test was determined within a four-week period to the experimental dialysis sessions. The computerized PDC program allowed for an assess- ment of the functional peritoneal capacity for dialytic exchange based on the three-pore concept for transcapil- lary exchange [19]. PDC is described by three physiologi- cal parameters: (1) The area parameter or the unrestricted pore area per centimeter (cm) of diffusion distance (A 0 / x), which determines the diffusion of small solutes and the hydraulic conductance of the membrane (L p S); (2) the Jv AR, which is the final reabsorption rate of fluid from the abdominal cavity to blood when the glucose gradient has dissipated; and (3) the plasma loss (Jv L ) that determines the loss of proteins from blood to the abdominal cavity through the large pores. The PET was based on a four-hour exchange with 2 L of 2.27% (or 2.5%) glucose solution. The D/P ratios for urea and creatinine were calculated together with the dialysate glucose concentration at four hours over the initial concentration (D/D 0 ). The creatinine concentra- tions were corrected for the interference with glucose using the following Jaffe correction: D-[creat] true D-[creat] measured 0.285 D-[glucose] where the correction factor of 0.285 was independently determined by us and valid for our laboratory. Statistical methods Results are presented as means SE. Linear regres- sion analysis (r Pearson s correlation coefficient, d.o.f. degrees of freedom) was performed where ap- propriate. RESULTS Fourteen patients participated in two experimental PD sessions with dialysate dwell volumes of 2 and 0.5 L

Johnsson et al: Peritoneal exchange area and uptake of iohexol 1775 Fig. 1. Plasma concentrations of iohexol after abdominal filling with 2 L of peritoneal dialysis (PD) fluid containing iohexol (6 mg/ml, N 14). and dialysate iohexol concentrations of 6.02 0.04 and a2lpddwell gave the following relationship: A 0 / x 5.99 0.00 mg/ml, respectively (P NS). No adverse 76,300 k 30 120 1.56, r 2 0.799, and hence a Pearson s events occurred during or between the PD sessions. The correlation coefficient of 0.894 (N 14; Fig. 2). This 0.5 L PD dwell gave fill volumes of 258 6 ml/m 2 or equation was used to convert the rate constant for io- 6.6 0.3 ml/kg, whereas the 2 L dwell gave fill volumes hexol uptake to A 0 / x for 2 L and 0.5 L PD dwells. Such of 1030 23 ml/m 2 or 26.2 1.1 ml/kg. analysis revealed that the effective A 0 / x is considerably Basic PET data smaller with the low fill volume of 0.5 L compared with that of 2 L (Fig. 3). The dialysate over plasma concentration ratio for urea (D/P urea ) after four hours with 2 L of 2.27 or 2.5% glucose Relationship between PET data and iohexol uptake intraperitoneally was 0.878 0.011 (range 0.793 to The relationship between the PET data and the rate 0.961). D/P for creatinine was 0.629 0.023 (range 0.516 constant for iohexol uptake is demonstrated in Figure to 0.783), and D/D 0 for glucose was 0.319 0.012 (range 4. The correlation between D/P urea and k 30 120 gave the 0.229 to 0.387). following regression equation: D/P urea 0.458 k 30 120 The unrestricted pore area, A 0 / x, from PDC 0.755 (r 2 0.409). The corresponding regression equations for D/P creatinine and D/D0 glucose were 0.957 k 30 120 The average unrestricted pore area over diffusion dis- 0.373, r 2 0.436, and D/D0 glucose 0.094 k 30 120 0.344 tance, A 0 / x, as determined by the PDC test, was (r 2 0.015), respectively (Fig. 4). 18,800 1270 cm 2 /cm/1.73 m 2 BSA, with a range of 11,400 to 26,500. The corresponding A 0 / x for the 0.5 L volume was 4800 490 cm 2 /cm/1.73 m 2 BSA (range 1800 DISCUSSION to 7500). The distribution was not random since patients The hypothesis of a relationship between the peritowere selected on the basis of previous PDC tests in order neal capillary uptake of a tracer and the functional peri- to represent a broad spectrum of peritoneal capacities. toneal area available for dialytic exchange (A 0 / x) could be confirmed by the results of the present study. Thus, Rate constant for iohexol uptake for the larger dwell volume (2 L), there was a strong Figure 1 shows the plasma concentration of iohexol correlation between the rate of plasma iohexol concenagainst time after the start of the abdominal fill. The tration increase and the functional peritoneal area as- rate constant for iohexol uptake (k 30 120 ) was 0.267 sessed by PDC measurements, while the PET data were 0.015 min 1 (range 0.170 to 0.368) for 2Lofintraperito- far less related to the iohexol uptake. neal fill volume and 0.084 0.006 min 1 (range 0.043 to The study included patients with PD as their mainte- 0.119) for 0.5 L dialysate volumes. nance renal replacement therapy, and they have routinely performed PDC measurements. They were se- Relationship between A 0 / x and iohexol uptake lected to represent a spectrum of different functional Linear regression analysis of A 0 / x determined by the peritoneal capacities (Fig. 1). The standard curve calcu- PDC test and the rate constant for iohexol uptake after lated for the area parameter versus plasma iohexol con-

1776 Johnsson et al: Peritoneal exchange area and uptake of iohexol Fig. 2. Unrestricted pore area per cm diffusion distance (A 0 / x) as determined by a three-pore analysis of a peritoneal dialysis capacity (PDC) test plotted against the relative rate of plasma concentration increase, k 30 120, after intraperitoneal administration of iohexol in2lofpdfluid. The linear regression analysis gave the following relationship: A 0 / x 76300 k 30 120 1.56 (r 2 0.799, N 14). Fig. 3. The rate of the increase in plasma concentration (k 30 120 ) after an intraperitoneal administration of iohexol can be converted to A 0 / x using the relationship in Figure 2. This graph illustrates such A 0 / x values calculated from the rate constant for iohexol uptake against the individual fill volume (ml/kg, N 14) forthe0.5and2lpddwells, respectively. The A 0 / x is significantly increased after application of the larger fill volume. Also shown is the line of identity. centration should thereby be representative for varying solutes and fluid is only partially utilized, to varying characteristics of the peritoneal membrane. The strong degrees in different patients. The k 30 120 value of 0.10 for correlation between k 30 120 and A 0 / x for the 2 L PD the 0.5 L intraperitoneal volume would suggest that on solution validates the three-pore concept as used in the average only 35 to 40% of the area is utilized compared PDC program [19]. Thus, if the total pore area available with the 2 L solution. This probably explains why a for exchange (per cm of diffusion distance, A 0 / x) is small intraperitoneal volume is not reabsorbed as fast known, it is possible to estimate the transperitoneal pas- as expected based on the area parameter determined sage for any solute. In the present study, the uptake of using normal abdominal fill volumes. iohexol was found to be in direct proportion to the A 0 / x, The intermediate-sized molecule iohexol seems to be at least for the 2 L exchange. For 0.5 L of PD fluid, the a useful marker of the peritoneal exchange when a suffi- relationship was less reliable. Hence, it seems important cient dwell volume is used. This is in analogy with results to use adequate dwell volumes for studies of iohexol from a recent study in patients with end-stage renal dis- uptake after an intraperitoneal injection. ease and HD treatment where iohexol was found to The lower dwell volume of 0.5 L is probably not sufficient be a representative tracer for the capillary exchange of to be evenly distributed in the abdominal cavity. solutes in the dialytic situation [31]. Thereby, the peritoneal area available for exchange of For patients with end-stage renal failure, it would be

Johnsson et al: Peritoneal exchange area and uptake of iohexol 1777 Fig. 4. (A) Dialysate over plasma (D/P) concentration ratios for urea after four-hour dwells with 2 L of 2.27% glucose solutions plotted against the rate constant for iohexol uptake (k 30 120 ). D/P urea 0.458 k 30 120 0.755 (r 2 0.409, N 14). (B) D/P creatinine plotted against the rate constant for iohexol uptake (k 30 120 ). Linear regression analysis gave the following relationship: D/P creatinine 0.957 k 30 120 0.373 (r 2 0.436, N 14). (C) D/D0 glucose versus the rate constant for iohexol uptake (k 30 120 ) yielded the following regression analysis: D/D0 glucose 0.094 k 30 120 0.344 (r 2 0.015, N 14).

1778 Johnsson et al: Peritoneal exchange area and uptake of iohexol useful to assess the peritoneal functional characteristics Reprint requests to Börje Haraldsson, M.D., Ph.D., Department of Physiology, P.O. Box 432, SE-405 30 Göteborg, Sweden. before maintenance PD is started. However, the present E-mail: bharalds@fysiologi.gu.se study shows that 2 L dwell volumes containing iohexol need to be used in order to predict peritoneal function adequately, that is, A 0 / x. Therefore, the iohexol uptake APPENDIX approach is suitable for patients on PD, but may cause Estimated transperitoneal passage of iohexol practical problems for those who do not yet have a PD The final reabsorption rate of fluid from the abdominal cavity to blood, Jv AR, is on average 1.2 ml/min. This includes lymph flow and catheter. reabsorption across the capillary walls [19]. Assuming that at least The standardized PET is still the most widespread 70% of the Jv AR will contain iohexol, a mass transfer area coefficient tool for assessment of peritoneal exchange capacity, and (MTAC) for iohexol across the peritoneal membrane of 5 ml/min will give a total peritoneal to blood clearance (K PD B ) of 5.85 ml/min. variations in PET are often interpreted in terms of The MTAC is given by the following expression: transport or peritoneal permeability. The changes in MTAC (A 0 / x) (A p /A 0 ) D 37 C (Eq. 1) dialysate over plasma concentration ratios (D/P, diswhere A 0 / x is the unrestricted pore area over diffusion distance, A p /A 0 cussed previously in this article) are noteworthy, and is the pore restriction factor for a given solute, and D is the free hence, PET does not provide clear information of under- diffusion coefficient [19]. Thus, MTAC for a certain solute is directly lying mechanisms in the peritoneal membrane. Factors proportional to the area parameter, A 0 / x. such as the area available for exchange (A 0 / x), the intraperitoneal volume, the rate of ultrafiltration, the Measured iohexol concentration before and after a two-hour PD dwell lymph flow, as well as the pore size and relative pore The iohexol concentrations in the PD fluid were determined before distribution may all affect the D/P concentration ratios, the start of the dwell and after two hours of dialysis, based on the and therefore the PET results. In accordance with this mean of duplicate samples. The initial concentration was close to 6 mg/ml. The concentration of iohexol in the drain solution was corobservation, the PET data of our present study were rected for the diluting effects of the estimated residual volume and of substantially more scattered and less correlated to the the ultrafiltration. The iohexol concentration in the drain fluid was plasma uptake of iohexol than the corresponding PDC 70.4% (SEM 5.2%, N 13) of the initial concentration for a fill volume of 2 L, and 57.1% (SEM 5.0%, N 12) for a fill volume of 0.5 L. results. The three-pore concept for transcapillary exchange Calculated iohexol concentration in the dialysate [32], which has been applied to PD [33, 34], offers a basic Initially, the blood concentration of iohexol is zero, and the intraperitoneal concentration [C ip (0)] is 6 mg/ml. An estimate of the intraphysiological description of solute and fluid transport in peritoneal concentration at time t, C ip (t), can be obtained using the PD. The PDC test is based on the three-pore model and following compartmental analysis: allows for determinations of the transport characteristics C ip (t)/c ip (0) e K t/v ip (Eq. 2) of the peritoneal membrane in individual patients [19]. Hence, the PDC has become a useful tool to secure The expression to the left is the concentration of iohexol in the dialysate adequate dialysis and to improve the understanding of at time (t; in minutes) as a fraction of the initial C ip. Thus, for an intraperitoneal volume (V ip ) of 2000 ml, a time (t) of 120 minutes and PD exchange. Furthermore, the PDC parameters have a clearance (K) of 4.85 ml min 1, the calculated C ip (120) would be been shown to be reliable as well as highly reproducible 70.4%, that is, equivalent to the experimentally determined value. and to allow for adequate predictions of the dialysis Repeating the calculations for a fill volume (V ip ) of 500 ml would give a calculated C ip (120) of 24.6%, which is less than half of that efficacy in both adults [19] and children [35]. experimentally determined. This means that clearance in the situation To summarize, we have compared the plasma appearforav ip of 2000 ml. with a fill volume of 500 ml must be reduced compared with the K ance rate after intraperitoneal administration of iohexol (k 30 120 ) with two other methods of estimating peritoneal Estimating MTAC and A 0 / x with a low fill volume function: PET and the area parameter of PDC. The The total clearance is composed of MTAC 0.85 ml min 1 (discussed previously in the Appendix), and MTAC is proportional to A 0 / x. plasma appearance rate of intraperitoneal iohexol is highly Dividing A 0 / x (and hence MTAC) by 3.37 would therefore result in correlated to the area parameter (A 0 / x) of the PDC test, a K of 2.33 ml min 1. Inserting this K, a V ip of 500 ml and a t of 120 while PET correlates substantially less to the peritoneal minutes into equation 2 results in a C ip (t) of 57.0% of the initial pore area or the k 30 120. We conclude that the bluntness intraperitoneal concentration, which is similar to the experimentally determined value. If A 0 / x is 18,000 cm 2 cm 1 with a 2 L dwell, then of PET as a tool for estimating peritoneal function stands it would be expected to be 5300 cm 2 cm 1 for an intraperitoneal fill in sharp contrast to its widely spread clinical use. volume of 0.5 L. This value is not far from that determined from independent estimates of the uptake of iohexol from the abdominal cavity to blood (discussed in the Results section). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study was supported by the Swedish Medical Research Council no. 9898, the Medical Faculty of Göteborg, LUA no. B31303, Knut and Alice Wallenbergs Foundation, and the Tore Nilssons Fund for Medical Research. We wish to thank Inga-Britt Persson for performing the iohexol analyses. REFERENCES 1. Popovich RP, Moncrief JW, Nolph KD, Ghods AJ, Twardowski ZJ, Pyle WK: Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Ann Intern Med 88:449 456, 1978

Johnsson et al: Peritoneal exchange area and uptake of iohexol 1779 2. Farooq MM, Freischlag JA: Peritoneal dialysis: An increasingly fluid and small-solute removal and higher mortality in CAPD patients. popular option. Semin Vasc Surg 10:144 150, 1997 Nephrol Dial Transplant 13:1242 1249, 1998 3. Gokal R: CAPD overview. Perit Dial Int 16(Suppl 1):S13 S18, 21. Blake PG: What is the problem with high transporters? (editorial, 1996 comment) Perit Dial Int 17:317 320, 1997 4. Maiorca R, Cancarini GC, Brunori G, Zubani R, Camerini C, 22. Churchill DN, Thorpe KE, Nolph KD, Keshaviah PR, Oreo- Manili L, Movilli E: Comparison of long-term survival between poulos DG, Page D: Increased peritoneal membrane transport hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. Adv Perit Dial 12:79 88, 1996 is associated with decreased patient and technique survival for 5. Nolph KD: Why are reported relative mortality risks for CAPD continuous peritoneal dialysis patients: The Canada-USA (CAand HD so variable? (editorial) Perit Dial Int 16:15 18, 1996 NUSA) Peritoneal Dialysis Study Group. J Am Soc Nephrol 6. Woodrow G, Turney JH, Brownjohn AM: Technique failure in 9:1285 1292, 1998 peritoneal dialysis and its impact on patient survival. Perit Dial 23. Coles GA: Have we underestimated the importance of fluid bal- ance for the survival of PD patients? (editorial) Perit Dial Int Int 17:360 364, 1997 17:321 326, 1997 7. Selgas R, Fernandez Reyes MJ, Bosque E, Bajo MA, Borrego 24. Frennby B: Use of iohexol clearance to determine the glomerular F, Jimenez C, Del Peso G, De Alvaro F: Functional longevity of filtration rate: A comparison between different clearance techthe human peritoneum: How long is continuous peritoneal dialysis niques in man and animal. Scand J Urol Nephrol (Suppl 182):1 63, possible? Results of a prospective medium long-term study. Am 1997 J Kidney Dis 23:64 73, 1994 25. Lehnert T, Keller E, Gondolf K, Schäffner T, Pavenstädt H, 8. Chaimovitz C: Peritoneal dialysis. Kidney Int 45:1226 1240, 1994 Schollmeyer P: Effect of haemodialysis after contrast medium 9. Diaz Buxo JA: Is continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis ade- administration in patients with renal insufficiency. Nephrol Dial quate long-term therapy for end-stage renal disease? A critical Transplant 13:358 362, 1998 assessment. (editorial) J Am Soc Nephrol 3:1039 1048, 1992 26. Waaler A, Svaland M, Fauchald P, Jakobsen JA, Kolmannskog 10. Adequacy of dialysis and nutrition in continuous peritoneal F, Berg KJ: Elimination of iohexol, a low osmolar nonionic contrast dialysis: Association with clinical outcomes: Canada-USA medium, by hemodialysis in patients with chronic renal failure. (CANUSA) Peritoneal Dialysis Study Group. J Am Soc Nephrol Nephron 56:81 85, 1990 7:198 207, 1996 27. Moon SS, Back SE, Kurkus J, Nilsson-Ehle P: Hemodialysis for 11. Heimburger O: Residual renal function, peritoneal transport charraphy in patients with impaired renal function. Nephron 70:430 elimination of the nonionic contrast medium iohexol after angiogacteristics and dialysis adequacy in peritoneal dialysis. Kidney Int 437, 1995 50(Suppl 56):S47 S55, 1996 28. Brown SC, O Reilly PH: The estimate of glomerular filtration rate 12. Rippe B, Simonsen O, Wieslander A, Landgren C: Clinical and during urography: Acceptability of a nonionic contrast medium as physiological effects of a new, less toxic and less acidic fluid for a marker of renal function. Invest Radiol 27:774 778, 1992 peritoneal dialysis. Perit Dial Int 17:27 34, 1997 29. Effersoe H, Rosenkilde P, Groth S, Jensen LI, Golman K: 13. Nilsson Thorell CB, Muscalu N, Andren AH, Kjellstrand Measurement of renal function with iohexol. A comparison of PT, Wieslander AP: Heat sterilization of fluids for peritoneal 99m iohexol, Tc-DTPA, and 51 Cr-EDTA clearance. Invest Radiol dialysis gives rise to aldehydes. Perit Dial Int 13:208 213, 1993 25:778 782, 1990 14. Martinson E, Wieslander A, Kjellstrand P, Boberg U: Toxicity 30. Krutzén E, Bäck S-E, Nilsson-Ehle I, Nilsson-Ehle P: Plasma of heat sterilized peritoneal dialysis fluids is derived from degradament clearance of a new contrast agent, iohexol: A method for assess- tion of glucose. ASAIO J 38:M370 M372, 1992 of glomerular filtration rate. J Lab Clin Med 104:955 961, 15. Buoncristiani U: The Y set with disinfectant is here to stay. (edito- 1984 rial, comment) Perit Dial Int 9:149 150, 1989 31. Johnsson E, Attman P-O, Samuelsson O, Haraldsson B: Im- 16. Nolph KD: What s new in peritoneal dialysis: An overview. Kidney proved clearance of iohexol with longer hemodialysis despite simi- Int 42(Suppl 38):S148 S152, 1992 lar Kt/V for urea. Nephrol Dial Transplant 14:2407 2412, 1999 17. Smeby L, Wideröe T, Jörstad S: Individual differences in water 32. Rippe B, Haraldsson B: Transport of macromolecules across microvascular walls: The two-pore theory. Physiol Rev 74:163 219, transport during continuous peritoneal dialysis. ASAIO Trans 1994 4:17 27, 1991 33. Rippe B: A three-pore model of peritoneal transport. Perit Dial 18. Twardowski ZJ: Clinical value of standardized equilibration tests Int 13(Suppl 2):S35 S38, 1993 in CAPD patients. Blood Purif 7:95 108, 1989 34. Rippe B, Simonsen O, Stelin G: Clinical implications of a three- 19. Haraldsson B: Assessing the peritoneal dialysis capacities of indi- pore model of peritoneal transport. Adv Perit Dial 7:3 9, 1991 vidual patients. Kidney Int 47:1187 1198, 1995 35. Schaefer F, Haraldsson B, Haas S, Feber J, Mehls O: Estimation 20. Wang T, Heimburger O, Waniewski J, Bergstrom J, Lindholm of peritoneal mass transport by three-pore model in children. Kidney B: Increased peritoneal permeability is associated with decreased Int 54:1372 1379, 1998