Emotion Regulation 1. Foundations of Emotion Regulation. Neuroscience and Education (HDAP 1238)

Emotion Regulation 1 Foundations of Emotion Regulation Neuroscience and Education (HDAP 1238)

Emotion Regulation 2 Emotional development begins early in life and is built into the architecture of the brain. The emerging capacities associated with emotional development begin during the early years and are inextricably linked to physical, social, and cognitive development. A child s ability to adapt to school and to form successful relationships is dependent upon healthy emotional development. In adulthood, these same skills support the formation of friendships, intimate relationships, effective parenting styles, and the ability to hold a job and become a contributing member of society (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2004). The concept of emotion regulation has become a focal point for many researchers (Bell & Wolfe, 2004; Cole, Martin, & Dennis, 2004; Thompson, 1994). This area of study has led to a greater understanding of how emotional and cognitive functions are dynamically linked through similar and possibly interconnected neural pathways and develop within the context of the social environment (Bell & Wolfe, 2004). In general, emotion regulation encompasses a diverse set of control processes that allow individuals to manipulate when, where, how, and which emotions are experienced and expressed (Quirk & Beer, 2006). This capability begins as early as infancy with the ability to experience and express different emotions. It continues to develop as infants gain a capacity to cope with and manage a variety of feelings within the context of nurturing relationships. Throughout the second through fifth year, children expand their capabilities by demonstrating self-initiated attempts to regulate emotion (Calkins, 1994; Cole et al., 2004). The development of these capabilities is occurring at the same time as the child is mastering critical skills in motor control, thinking, and communication. However, the development of emotion regulation is often overlooked as a core emerging skill in the early years. In fact, emotional, social and cognitive

Emotion Regulation 3 development is interrelated and relies on the creation, maturation, and interconnection of neural circuits throughout the brain and should not be discussed separately (Blair & Diamond, 2008). Establishing a foundation for emotion regulation along with other social and cognitive capacities should be a fundamental goal of caregivers and educators during the early years. Caregivers and educators need to understand how to support the development of emotion regulation including the ability to identify and intervene with young children who are experiencing challenges with regulatory processes. There are many definitions of emotion regulation amongst researchers. Thompson (1994) and Cole et al. (2004) provide the most inclusive definitions and will be used within this paper. Cole et al. (2004) suggest beginning with a working definition of emotion: Emotions are a fluid and complex progression of orienting toward the ongoing stream of experience (pg. 320). Thompson (1994) defines emotion regulation as a set of extrinsic and intrinsic processes that monitor, evaluate, and modify emotional reactions to accomplish one s goals. Together these definitions highlight the flexible nature of emotion and encompass both the enhancement and inhibition of emotional arousal in order to accomplish a goal. Implicit in these definitions is the notion that emotions are both regulatory and regulated; people not only have emotions, but they also manage them (Campos, Mumme, Kermoian, & Campos, 1994). In clarifying the definition of emotion regulation, it is useful to conceptualize it based on context rather than as a global construct (Thompson, 1994). Emotional regulation is situational and goal oriented; it varies depending on the demands of the immediate situation and the objectives of the individual (Cole, Michel, & Teti, 1994). Also captured in the definition of emotion regulation is the distinct difference

Emotion Regulation 4 between regulation and control. Regulation connotes a dynamic process that involves organization and adjustment whereas control suggests restraint (Cole et al., 1994). Through emphasizing these various attributes of emotion regulation, the developmental processes underlying this concept can be better understood. The interconnected development of emotion regulation is both biologically and environmentally based. There is evidence that emotional regulation is present very early in life and that physical, social and cognitive development contribute to its construction. Complex neural networks associated with emotion and cognition develop in multiple areas of the brain, including the prefrontal cortex, limbic cortex, basal forebrain, amygdala, hypothalamus and brainstem (Davidson, Lewis, Alloy, Amaral, Bush, Cohen, et al., 2002). The regulation of emotion emerges through experiences that involve thinking, learning, and action within social relationships (Bell & Wolfe, 2004). The complex and dynamic nature of emotional regulation becomes clear when examining its developmental progression. Temperament refers to innate individual differences in motor and emotional reactivity and selfregulation and directly and indirectly influences the ability to regulate emotions (Blair & Diamond, 2008). The research in the area of temperament adds credence to the notion that emotion is regulatory. This innate characteristic predisposes infants to respond to experiences in their environment based on their individual expression of emotional reactivity (Cole et a., 2004). These expressions range from infants who are extremely outgoing and adventurous to those who are painfully shy and easily upset by novelty. Infants will initiate tactile stimulation and gaze

Emotion Regulation 5 aversion to elicit positive emotions or to minimize negative emotions (Cole et al., 1994). Between 6 and 12 months, infants appear more emotionally responsive as their expressions of various emotions increase in intensity and duration (Cole et al., 1994). These innate tendencies coupled with increases in responsiveness represent an infant s first experience with emotions and are supported by brain structures that are present at birth. Lewis and Todd (2007) provide a comprehensive overview of regulatory processes. Neural mechanisms associated with emotion appear to be carried out by the more primitive automatic processes of subcortical brain structures, which include the brain stem, amygdala, and hypothalamus. These structures are more directly wired to bodily systems and process raw sensory or motor information. One way in which subcortical structures support regulation is through the flow of neuromodulators, which ascend from the brain stem and enhance activation in some parts of the brain while inhibiting action in others. Subcortical structures provide energy, focus, and direction to emotional behaviour. Through the expression of emotions, infants are beginning to understand the communicative purpose of emotions and to strengthen the neural circuitry to support more sophisticated emotion regulation during the toddler years. Many emotional experiences of newborns and young infants occur during interactions with a caregiver, for example, during feeding and comforting. Infants display distress when they have unmet needs and experience positive emotions when caregivers are responsive and sensitive to them (Calkins, 1994). The infant s ability to regulate emotions is limited and is largely dependent upon adults. Controlling distress is a major milestone for the infant and caregiver during the

Emotion Regulation 6 early months and the ability of the infant to modulate attention further contributes to this process (Calkins, 1994; Posner & Rothbart, 2000). Initially, caregivers support the development of emotion regulation through rocking and holding the infant, and then gradually, the caregiver will attempt to engage the infant in activities that occupy their attention and reduce their distress (Calkins, 1994). During the first year, infants begin to internalize the emotion regulation strategies of their caregivers. These types of interactions may actually be training the infant to control distress and consequently initiate the development of the frontal lobes of the brain (Posner & Rothbart, 2000). Sensitive and responsive interactions between the caregiver and the child help lay the foundation for emerging abilities to amplify or adjust emotion and maintain the reciprocal nature of emotion regulation (Blair & Diamond 2008). As caregivers respond to emotional cues of the child by providing appropriate stimulation, modulating arousal, and reinforcing the child s actions, the child is also regulating the caregiver through their receptivity to the caregiver (Cole et al, 2004). The quality of these early exchanges may actually be predictive of a child s growing ability to self-regulate emotions as a toddler (Cole et al., 2004). With the growth of motor control, thinking, and communication during the second year of life, children now have a broader range of abilities to support emotion regulation then they did during infancy. The emotional states of toddlers and preschoolers are much more complex than those of infants. They are acquiring a better understanding of the range of emotions and are becoming more adept at expressing and managing them (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child,

Emotion Regulation 7 2004). By the age of 3, children can minimize negative feelings in certain circumstances and begin to acknowledge that one can feel more than a single emotion at a time (Blair & Diamond, 2008). Children s social networks during these years are continuing to expand to include siblings, peers, and teachers. New and different social influences provide opportunities for children to experience a variety of emotions and to learn about and practice emerging skills in managing these new emotions (Cole et al., 1994). The increasing demands of the social environment along with the growth of cognitive abilities during early childhood present an optimal backdrop for young children to demonstrate emerging skills in emotion regulation. Emotional development supports learning by helping individuals to focus attention, restrain impulsive reactions, adjust to novelty, and cooperate with teachers and peers (Blackmore & Firth, 2005). Cognition and emotion represent an intricately bound developmental process. Neurologically, these processes share common networks that work together to process information and carry out actions (Bell & Wolfe, 2004). The neural circuits involved in the regulation of emotion are highly interactive with those associated with executive function (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2004). Some of the shared processes include the ability to inhibit responses, develop working memory, and demonstrate cognitive flexibility. The ability to inhibit responses is needed for selective and sustained attention. Working memory makes it possible to consider things from different perspectives by allowing children to hold information in their mind while mentally working with or updating it. Finally, cognitive flexibility is important for problem solving (Blair & Diamond, 2008). These processes require interaction between the subcortical regions of the brain that

Emotion Regulation 8 function automatically and rapidly, and cortical regions that deal with more conscious cognitive processes involving planning and decision making (Blackmore & Firth, 2005). In contrast to subcortical systems, cortical systems are relatively unstructured at birth and are highly plastic. Structures within the cortical system are designed to be shaped and reshaped by learning (Lewis & Todd, 2007). The subcortical and cortical regions work in a reciprocal and bidirectional fashion, from the brain stem to the cortex. This is referred to by Lewis & Todd (2007) as vertical integration. The coordination of subcortical and cortical systems is what leads to progressively higher levels of cognitive functioning (Lewis & Todd, 2007). As children develop, this coordination becomes more sophisticated and as result children are better able to regulate emotion. The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is one particular area within the cortical system that has been recognized as playing a critical role in emotion and cognition (Bush, Luu, & Posner, 2000). The ACC resides deep within the brain between the cortical and subcortical systems (Lewis & Todd, 2007). It is activated when the individual is asserting control over behaviour, selecting among alternative responses, shifting attention, monitoring errors, and altering behaviour strategies (Lewis & Todd, 2007). The ACC simultaneously processes and integrates cognitive and emotional information (Bell & Wolfe, 2004). This process assists in the development of emotion regulation. The vital link in connecting emotion and cognition resides with the prefrontal cortex (PFC), which is responsible for executive functions that involve decisionmaking, planning, and problem solving (Blair & Diamond, 2008).

Emotion Regulation 9 Although the PFC is only beginning to develop during the preschool years, patterns of synchronization among neural systems associated with emotion and cognition are being established (Blair & Diamond, 2008). By the end of the preschool years, children will have had opportunities to acquire a strong emotional foundation that includes the ability to anticipate, talk about, and use their awareness of their feelings and the feelings of others to begin to manage social interactions (Cole et al., 1994). Growth in all domains of development contributes to the emerging ability to regulate emotions. Caregivers and educators are key facilitators in providing opportunities that strengthen children s emotional development and in intervening with children and families who present significant emotional challenges. Current practices within the field of early childhood education focus predominately on cognition, language, and early literacy. A shift in programming and policy is required to include and support the core competencies associated with emotional development. Knowledge of the emotional development of young children, including its underlying neural mechanisms, is essential in establishing developmentally appropriate curriculum and interventions (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2004). Emotion regulation emerges when there is a balance and mutual reinforcement between processes of emotionality and cognition (Blair & Diamond, 2008). Early learning environments can facilitate this development by implementing curriculum that addresses both cognitive skill building and teaching emotional competencies. Examples of emotional competencies include the ability to recognize, name, and express strong feelings and link different ideas and feelings along with understanding how these are related. These skills will

Emotion Regulation 10 help facilitate children s ability to share, handle frustration, delay gratification, and complete difficult tasks (LeBuffe & Naglieri, 1999). The Devereux Early Childhood Initiative is one example of an organization that is striving to strengthen young children s emotional competencies by providing evidence based resources to support the development of protective factors and increase children s resiliency (www.devereux.org). The Devereux Early Childhood Assessment (DECA) is a comprehensive system for supporting early childhood professionals, families, and communities with a goal of helping children develop healthy social and emotional skills and reduce challenging behaviours (LeBuffe & Naglieri, 1999). A curriculum with a strong emphasis on structured play would support children to learn and practice emotional competencies. Play helps children learn about social environments and the rules of engagement. Through play, exploration, trial and error, and interactions with adults and peers, children will be provided with opportunities to become more skilled thinkers and problem solvers and more able to regulate their emotions (LeBuffe & Naglieri, 1999). Play is a key component of a curriculum model developed by Bodrova and Leong (2007) titled Tools of the Mind. Regulatory skills and executive-functioning training is approached through a variety of different activities. In particular, intentional dramatic play is implemented to encourage children to develop a play plan, which facilitates the coordination of emotional aspects of their experiences with cognitive control aspects (Blair & Diamond, 2008).

Emotion Regulation 11 Research in the area of emotional development during the early years focuses on temperament, caregiver child interactions, and early development of emotional self-regulation. While engaged in interactions with sensitive and responsive caregivers, children are able to practice expressing emotion in a supportive environment and begin to establish basic skills in managing their own emotions. Emotion regulation is an ideal construct that can be used to further investigate the interconnected nature of development. With an understanding of the complex process of emotion regulation, caregivers and educators would be better positioned to facilitate healthy emotional development in young children. Adults can support the growing interconnections among brain circuits by responding appropriately to the emotional needs of children. The commitment of caregivers and educators to providing optimal opportunities for practicing emotion regulation would have a significant life-long impact.

Emotion Regulation 12 References Bell, M.A., & Wolfe, C.D. (2004). Emotion and cognition: An intricately bound developmental process. Child Development 75(2), 366-370 Blair, C., & Diamond, A. (2008). Biological processes in prevention and intervention: The promotion of self-regulation as a means of preventing school failure. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 899-911. Blackmore, S., & Frith, U. (2005). The Learning Brain: Lessons for Education. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (2007). Tools of the mind: The Vygotskian approach to early childhood education (2 nd ed.). New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall. Bush, G., Luu, P., & Posner, M.I. (2000). Cognitive and emotional influences in anterior cingulate cortex. Trends in Cognitive Science, 4(6), 215-222. Calkins, S.D. (1994). Origins and outcomes of individual differences in emotion regulation. In N. A. Fox (Ed.), The development of emotion regulation: Biological and behavioral considerations. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2-3, Serial No. 240), 53-72. Campos, J.J., Mumme, D.L., Kermoian, R., & Campos, R.G. (1994). A functionalist perspective on the nature of emotion. In N. A. Fox (Ed.), The development of emotion regulation: Biological and behavioral considerations. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2-3, Serial No. 240), 284-303. Cole, P.M, Michel, M.K., & Teti, L.O. (1994). The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation: A clinical perspective. In N. A. Fox (Ed.), The development of emotion regulation: Biological and behavioral considerations. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2-3, Serial No. 240), 73-100. Cole, P.M., Martin, S., & Dennis, T. (2004). Emotion regulation as a scientific construct: Methodological challenges and directions for child development research. Child Development, 75(2), 317-333. Davidson, R..J., Lewis, M., Alloy, L.B., Amaral, D.G., Bush, G., Cohen, J., et.al. (2002). Neural and behavioural substrates of mood and mood regulation. Biological Psychiatry, 52(6), 478-502. LeBuffe, P.A., & Naglieri, J.A. (1999). Hall, N. (1999). Devereux Early Childhood Assessment. Lewisville, NC: Kaplan Early Learning Company.

Emotion Regulation 13 Lewis, M., & Todd, R. (2007). The self-regulating brain: Cortical-subcoritcal feedback and the development of intelligent action. Cognitive Development, 22, 406-430. National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, (2004). Children s emotional development is built into the architecture of their brains. Working Paper No.2. Posner, M., & Rothbart, M. (2000). Developing mechanisms of self-regulation. Development and Psychopathology, 12(3), 427-442. Quirk, G.J., & Beer, J.S. (2006). Prefrontal involvement in the regulation of emotion: Convergence of rat and human studies. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 16, 723-727. Thompson, R.A. (1994). Emotion regulation: A theme is search of definition. In N. A. Fox (Ed.), The development of emotion regulation: Biological and behavioral considerations. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2-3, Serial No. 240), 25-52.