ORIGINAL ARTICLE A 20-Year Prospective Study of Wilms Tumor and Other Kidney Tumors: A Report From Hong Kong Pediatric Hematology and Oncology Study Group Ching Ching Chan, MRCP,* Ka Fai To, FHKAM,w Hui Leung Yuen, FHKAM,z Alan Kwok Shing Chiang, FHKAM,y Siu Cheung Ling, FHKAM,8 Chak Ho Li, FHKAM,z Daniel Ka Leung Cheuk, FHKAM,y Chi Kong Li, MD,* and Matthew Ming Kong Shing, FHKAM* Background: Renal tumors are one of the most common tumors in children. We aim at evaluating the characteristics and the outcome of Wilms tumor and other malignant kidney tumors in Hong Kong. Procedure: Between January 1990 to December 2010, 68 patients under the age of 18 with malignant renal tumors were diagnosed and received treatment in Hong Kong. Clinical records were updated regularly. Prognostic factors and survival rate were evaluated. Results: Fifty-four patients were diagnosed with Wilms tumor. The annual incidence was estimated to be 2.29 per million. The mean age was 38 months. Median follow-up was 9.2 years. The event-free survival and overall survival rate at 10 years were 85.2% and 92.6%, respectively. A pair of siblings with familial extrarenal Wilms tumor was included. Pulmonary metastasis did exhibit a significant difference in survival rate. Eight cases of clear cell sarcoma of the kidneys were reported and the survival rate was 100%. Conclusions: The clinical characteristics and outcome of the patients diagnosed Wilms tumor were comparable with other developed countries. Relatively high proportion and excellent outcome were found in clear cell sarcoma of the kidneys. Key Words: renal tumor, Wilms tumor, clear cell sacroma (J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2014;36:445 450) Renal tumors are currently the fifth most common tumor in children, 1 with Wilms tumor representing 90% of renal tumors diagnosed in this age group. 2 For the last decade, the prognosis for Wilms tumor in children has improved dramatically. For example, the survival rate has reached 90% for cases involving localized disease with the use of multidisciplinary therapy. 3 However, for each Received for publication March 15, 2013; accepted August 20, 2013. From the *Department of Pediatrics, Lady Pao Children s Cancer Centre; wdepartment of Anatomical and Cellular Pathology, Prince of Wales Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT; zdepartment of Pediatrics, Queen Elizabeth Hospital; ydepartment of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital; 8Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Princess Margaret Hospital; and zdepartment of Pediatrics, Tuen Mun Hospita, Hong Kong. The authors declare no conflict of interest. Reprints: Matthew Ming Kong Shing, FHKAM, Department of Pediatrics, Lady Pao Children s Cancer Centre, Prince of Wales Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong (e-mail: mk-shing@cuhk.edu.hk). Copyright r 2013 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins treatment modality, consideration of risk versus benefit must be considered. In this study, the epidemiological characteristics and outcome of patients from the Chinese population in Hong Kong who were diagnosed and treated for Wilms tumors and other malignant kidney tumors using the Hong Kong Paediatric Hematology & Oncology Study Group Wilms Tumour Protocol were evaluated. MATERIALS AND METHODS Between January 1990 and December 2010, 76 patients younger than 18 years were diagnosed with kidney tumors and received treatment in Hong Kong. Of these patients, 68 were diagnosed with malignant renal tumors, and 54 cases involved Wilms tumor. Patients were treated by the pediatric oncologists from the 5 regional hospitals that formed the Hong Kong Paediatric Hematology & Oncology Study Group. In this prospective populationbased study, all cases had a diagnosis confirmed histopathologically, either based on a nephrectomy specimen or a biopsy sample. Clinical records were updated every 6 months for all patients, and data such as age, sex, symptoms at presentation, site of initial involvement, important laboratory and imaging results, staging, treatment response, and outcome were collected. Examinations performed for all patients included abdominal ultrasound or computed tomography scan, and chest x-ray. When metastasis was visible on a chest x-ray, the patient was classified with stage IV disease. All excised lymph nodes were examined. Histopathologic sections were reviewed by pathologists and classified as Wilms tumor, favorable histology (FH), unfavorable histology that is, anaplastic Wilms tumor (focal or diffuse), or other histology. Histopathologic classifications and clinical staging were determined according to the National Wilms Tumor Study (NWTS). 4 Central pathology review was done by pathologist professor K.F.T. Patients received individualized, multimodality treatments based on the histology and staging determined for their disease. Nephrectomy or biopsy were the main procedures performed. Chemotherapy involving 2 to 4 chemotherapeutic agents with or without radiotherapy was administrated according to protocol. 4 The protocol was based on the NWTS 5. Before the activation of NWTS 5 in 1995, there was no uniform protocol among the 5 hospitals. Some used United Kingdom Children Cancer Study Group protocol, whereas some hospitals used NWTS protocol. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol Volume 36, Number 6, August 2014 www.jpho-online.com 445
Chan et al J Pediatr Hematol Oncol Volume 36, Number 6, August 2014 The endpoints of these studies were event-free periods and overall survival (OS). Prognostic factors were also evaluated. Patients completed follow-up examinations through December 2010. The annual incidence was defined as the number of new cases per million population younger than 18 years old. It was estimated by the average of incidence rate from 1990 to 2010. The number of population was quoted from Hong Kong annual digest of statistics. 5 All of the collected data were analyzed using SPSS software, version 16.0. Mortality and survival are expressed as percentages. OS and event-free survival (EFS) rates were plotted using Kaplan-Meier analysis, and the log-rank test was used to evaluate established prognostic factors. RESULTS Wilms Tumor Seventy-six patients diagnosed with kidney tumors between 1990 and 2010 at our institutions were enrolled in this study. The incidence of Wilms tumor in the population of Hong Kong younger than 18 years old was estimated to be 2.29 per million. The male to female ratio for this series was 1.16, and the mean age at diagnosis was 38 months (range, 3 to 176 mo).the types of kidney tumors that were detected are listed in Table 1, and these included 54 cases of Wilms tumors. Clinical characteristics of the study participants are listed in Table 2. In the Wilms tumor cases, the right kidney was affected in 22/54 (40.7%) patients, the left kidney was affected in 24/ 54 (44.4%) patients, and both kidneys were affected in 5/54 (9.3%) patients at the time of presentation. There were 3 cases involving an extrarenal mass present in the retroperitoneal region, and these were subsequently confirmed to be Wilms tumors by histopathology. Moreover, 2 of the 3 cases included a pair of siblings. The most frequent symptom at the time of diagnosis (in 75.5% of cases) was an abdominal mass or abdominal distension. However, these conditions were generally detected by parents or physicians incidentally. The second most frequent symptom was hematuria (15%), whereas other presenting symptoms included abdominal pain (7.5%), fever (5.7%), or diarrhea (3.8%). In 50/54 (92.6%) cases, the associated histopathology was found to be favorable, and was unfavorable in 4/54 (7.4%) cases. In addition, 5 cases of pulmonary metastasis and 1 case of liver metastasis were diagnosed. Nephrectomy was performed in 53/54 cases. The remaining case involved a tumor that was inoperable. Treatment protocols were determined according to NWTS 5. 6 Accordingly, stage I and II FH patients were treated with vincristine and TABLE 1. Histology of Kidney Tumors Type of Kidney Tumor Present No. Cases (%) Wilms tumor 54 (71) Clear cell sarcoma of kidney 9 (12) Primitive neuroectomal tumor 3 (4) Rhabdoid tumor of kidney 1 (1) Papillary renal cell carcinoma 1 (1) Others* 8 (11) Total 76 *Included: mesoblastic nephroma, inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor, mesoblastic fibroadenoma, multicytic nephroma. TABLE 2. Clinical Characteristics of Patients (n = 54) N (%) Age range (y) 0.3-14.7 (mean, 3.2) Male/female 29/25 Primary tumor site Right kidney 22 (40.7) Left kidney 24 (44.4) Bilateral 5 (9.3) Extrarenal 3 (5.6) Histopathology and stage FH I 21 (38.9) FH II 9 (16.7) FH III 12 (22.2) FH IV 5 (9.3) FH V 3 (5.6) UH I-V 4 (7.4) Metastasis Pulmonary 5 (9.3) Liver 1 (1.9) FH indicates favorable histology; UH, unfavorable histology (anaplastic). actinomycin D for 18 weeks. For stage III and IV FH patients or stage II-IV focal anaplasic cases, chemotherapy included actinomycin, doxorubicin, vincristine, radiotherapy was administered directly to the tumor bed, and also at sites of abdominal or lung metastasis as needed. For stage II-IV diffuse anaplastic cases, therapy included cyclophosphamide, etoposide, vinristine, doxorubicin, and radiotherapy. For bilateral Wilms tumor, chemotherapy was administered according to biopsy result. No chemotherapy-related mortality was observed for any of the patients. The median follow-up period was 9.2 years following the initial diagnosis. There were 7 patients who were lost to follow-up (13%) with variable reasons. In addition, 2 patients died of disease relapse, 1 patient died of pneumonia, and 1 patient died because of rupture of a cerebral artriovenous malformation 7 years after the initial diagnosis. Relapse rates associated with each tumor stage are listed in Table 3. Overall, tumor relapse was experienced by 6/54 (11.1%) patients. Of these, 2 occurred at a primary site, 2 occurred at a pulmonary site, 1 involved the anterior mediastinum, and another patient had a relapse involving the proximal tibia, lung, and liver. The EFS and OS rates at 5 years were 87.0% and 94.4%, respectively. Similarly, the same rates at 10 years were 85.2% and 92.6%, respectively (Figs. 1, 2). EFS and OS rates according to tumor stage are presented in Table 3. Prognostic Factors for Wilms Tumors Prognostic factors for Wilms tumors are shown in Table 4. No differences in survival rates were observed with respect to patient sex. Patients between 10 and 14 years old had the lowest survival rate (50%), although there was no significant difference among the age groups analyzed (ie, 0 to 1, 1 to 4, 5 to 9, and 10 to 14 y) (P = 0.189). There was also no significant difference in tumor stage, histology, and primary tumor localization. The survival rates associated with favorable and unfavorable histologies were 94% and 75%, respectively. Moreover, patient with pulmonary metastasis did exhibit a significant difference in survival rate (P = 0.011). In contrast, there was no significant difference between the survival rates of patients with intra-abdominal 446 www.jpho-online.com r 2013 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
J Pediatr Hematol Oncol Volume 36, Number 6, August 2014 Wilms Tumor in Pediatrics TABLE 3. Ten-Year Event-free and Overall Survival Rates Histology and Stage N Death Relapse Event-free Survival n (%) Overall Survival n (%) FH I 21 0 1 20 (95.2) 21 (100) FH II 9 1 2 7 (77.8) 8 (88.9) FH III 12 0 1 11 (91.7) 12 (100) FH IV 5 2 1 3 (60.0) 3 (60.0) FH V 3 0 1 2 (66.7) 3 (100) UH I-V 4 1 0 3 (75.0) 3 (75.0) FH indicates favorable histology; UH, unfavorable histology (anaplastic). lymph nodes metastasis or intravascular extension. Among the prognostic factors, no significant difference in EFS could be demonstrated in this study. Other Renal Tumors Eight cases of clear cell sarcoma of the kidneys (CCSK) were present in this series. The mean age of occurrence was 5 years (range, 10 mo to 16 y), and the male to female ratio was 2:1. Six of the CCSK patients presented with an abdominal mass, whereas 2 presented with a gross hematuria. In the latter case, 1 included an extrarenal suprarenal mass. In addition, 4 cases were stage 1, 2 cases were stage 2, and 2 cases were stage 3. None of the cases involved bone or distant organ metastasis. Nephrectomy, abdominal irradiation for all patients, chemotherapy with vincristine, doxorubicin, etoposide, and cyclophosphamide were administered. The OS and EFS rates were 100%. There were no deaths during the follow-up period. Primitive neuroectomal tumors were identified in two 3-year olds and one 15-year old. In 2 of the 3 cases, complete remission was achieved and the patients survived. For the remaining case, the patient was diagnosed with a stage IV tumor and died of a pulmonary metastasis. Only 1 case of papillary renal cell carcinoma was diagnosed, and this patient achieved complete remission and survived. In contrast, the only case involving a rhabdoid tumor resulted in death. DISCUSSION Wilms tumor is the most common renal tumor diagnosed worldwide, and represents 5.9% of all childhood malignant tumors. In the United States, the incidence of Wilms tumor for children younger than 15 years old is 7.6 cases per million. 6 In a study of a Taiwanese population under 15 years old, the average annual incidence was 2.9 per million. 7 The latter case is comparable with the data of the present study. It is well known that Asian population has lower incidence of Wilms tumor than white. A relative incidence study in Britain found that relatives rates in Asians were about half of those in whites. Children of Asian descent in Hawaii had incidence rates of renal tumors <2/3 those of Hawaiian whites. The incidence is unaffected by migration and is apparently related more to ethnicity than to geographical location. 2 Genetic difference among the populations is being explored. It has been reported that a loss of imprinting of the IGF2 gene is a common feature in patients with Wilms tumor. There was a study reporting that in east Asian children, Wilms tumors were rarely associated with loss of IGF2 imprinting, but this mechanism was implicated in up to half of white children. 8 The clinical characteristics of the patients in this series were also compared with Wilms tumor patients of developed western countries. For example, the sex ratio (M/F) in this study was 1.12, which was similar to that reported for Cumulative survival Cumulative survival Years FIGURE 1. Kaplan-Meier overall survival rates. Years FIGURE 2. Kaplan-Meier event-free survival rates. r 2013 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins www.jpho-online.com 447
Chan et al J Pediatr Hematol Oncol Volume 36, Number 6, August 2014 TABLE 4. Survival Analysis Event-free Survival (%) Log- Rank (P) Overall Survival (%) Log- Rank (P) All patients (n = 54) Sex Male 82.8 93.1 Female 88 0.843 92.0 0.717 Age (y) 0-1 91.7 91.7 1-4 81.8 93.9 5-9 100 100 10-14 50 0.325 50.0 0.189 Stage I 95.2 100 II 80.0 90.0 III 84.6 92.3 IV 66.7 66.7 V 75 0.475 100 0.161 Site Left 87.5 95.8 Right 86.4 90.9 Bilateral 60 80.0 Extrarenal 100 0.366 100 0.603 Histology Favorable 86 94 Unfavorable 75 0.813 75 0.323 Treatment response Remission 95.8 Relapse 66.7 0.002 Pulmonary metastasis Positive 60 60.0 Negative 87.8 0.16 95.9 0.011 Intra-abdominal lymph node metastasis Positive 70 100 Negative 88.6 0.147 90.9 0.353 Intravascular extension Positive 87.5 100 Negative 84.8 0.867 91.3 0.408 Europe. However, in the United States, a female predominance of Wilms tumor cases has been observed, 9,10 with the disease mostly diagnosed in children between 1 and 5 years old (median, 3 y old). 6 The mean age in the present study, 38 months, was similar to that reported by other countries. 11 In this study, the most frequent symptom reported was an abdominal mass with or without abdominal distension (75.5%). The United Kingdom Children s Cancer Study Group Wilms Tumor Trial reported a similar rate of 74% for this symptom. 11 The distribution of stages in the present series was similar to that reported by international studies of Wilms tumors in developed countries. 12 Furthermore, there was no evidence of delayed diagnosis and treatment in the Hong Kong region. Epidemiologic studies have shown that 1% to 3% of Wilms tumor cases are familial, 13 and these cases are well documented. Among the 3 cases of retroperitoneal Wilms tumor included in the present study, a pair of siblings was involved. Cases of familial Wilms tumors are not usually associated with congenital abnormalities or a predisposition to other tumor types, and neither sibling in the present study exhibited congenital anomalies, nor had a family history of malignancy in present study. Both siblings presented with abdominal distension without systemic upset. The elder brother was treated according to a stage IV protocol, whereas his sister who was 3 years younger presented with stage 1 Wilms tumor and was treated accordingly. Both siblings achieved complete remission without relapse. This was the first report of familial extrarenal Wilms tumors, 14 immunohistochemical analyses detected the presence of WT1 gene products in 2 siblings. However, additional linkage studies for Wilms tumor genes within other members of the family were inconclusive. There are at least 3 loci associated with a predisposition to familial Wilms tumor that have been proposed: WT1 located on chromosome 11p13, FWT1 on 17q12-q21, and FWT2 on 19q13. It is hypothesized that susceptibility to this disease is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait with incomplete penetrance. 15 Of the Wilms tumor cases evaluated in this study, one was a known case of WAGR syndrome with genetic confirmation and another one was a case of Beckwith-Wiedenamm Syndrome. Wilms tumor has been associated with several congenital abnormalities, including genitourinary anomalies and hemihypertrophy. 16 In addition, although several genetic syndromes (ie, Beckwith Wiedemann syndrome, WAGR syndrome) have been associated with Wilms tumor, 17,18 they rarely involved in familial cases of the disease. Typically, the lungs are the most frequent organ involved in distant metastasis events, followed by the liver. In the present study, the most common site of metastasis was the lung, and only 1 case involved the liver. In a previous study, the survival rate of patients with lung metastasis was found to be higher than those with liver metastasis (50.2% vs. 16.6%, respectively). 19 The survival data from the present study are consistent with this observation. The most common sites of recurrence for cases of Wilms tumor are the lungs, pleura, tumor bed, and the liver. Similar to the NWTS 3 data, lung tissue was involved in nearly half of all the relapses in present study. 20 Moreover, all of the relapses occurred within 4 years of the original diagnosis. Compared with the survival rates reported for stage I disease with FH in the United Kingdom Wilms Tumor Study 2 and the NWTS 3, our study showed similar results. For example, in the former 2 studies, the 4-year EFS and OS rates were 87.0% and 91.8%, and 94.0% and 97.4%, respectively. In comparison, the 5-year EFS and OS rates for the present study were 87% and 94.4%, respectively. However, the survival rates for stage IV and V cases in the present study were poor, with 5-year EFS rates of 66.7% and 75%, respectively, and 5-year OS rates of 66.7% and 100%, respectively. These rates are consistent with those reported by UKW 2 (ie, 4-y EFS rate of 66.7% for both stages, and 4-y OS rates of 75.0% and 78.0%, respectively). 21 CCSK typically accounts for 3% to 5% of childhood renal tumors diagnosed. 22,23 For example, among 6185 patients with renal neoplasms enrolled in the NWTS between 1969 and 1995, only 200 cases involved CCSK. 24 However, in the present study, a relatively high proportion of CCSK cases were treated. CCSK is well known for its aggressive nature, and even early-stage tumors are associated with a poor prognosis. For example, in a large scale review involving 351 cases of CCSK, the OS and EFS rates were 69% and 60%, respectively, and 25% of the patients had localized stage 1 tumors. 24 Although for the NWTS 4, the OS rates for patients with CCSK were found to have improved from the NWTS 3 (ie, 83.0% vs. 66.9% at 448 www.jpho-online.com r 2013 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
J Pediatr Hematol Oncol Volume 36, Number 6, August 2014 Wilms Tumor in Pediatrics 8 y, respectively). 25 In the present study, an unexpected finding was that all 8 CCSK patients survived without relapse. Tumor stage, patient age, and tumor necrosis were identified as independent prognostic factors. 24 The patient age and sex in our study had a similar distribution as previous studies. Metastasis to bone is also a striking feature of CCSK, 26 and none of the 8 CCSK cases in this study involved metastasis. The significance of these clinical features in relation to survival rate was unable to be analyzed due to the small sample size. In this series, the overall outcome achieved was successful, and was consistent with that reported for other developed countries. For example, of the cases diagnosed and treated at our institution between 1978 and 1989, the 5- year EFS and OS rates were 71.4% and 85.7%, respectively. The improvement in the 5-year EFS and OS rates observed for the past decade (ie, 87.0% and 94.4%, respectively) with a similar distribution of tumor stages, is attributed to advances in imaging, improvements in combined treatments, and interdisciplinary cooperation which facilitate an early diagnosis. Many prognostic factors have been proposed for Wilms tumors, including tumor size, patient age, histology, lymph node metastases, and local tumor features (ie, capsular or vascular invasion). However, tumor stage and histology have been found to be the 2 most significant factors. Stage IV disease and an anaplastic histology subtype are associated with an adverse outcome. 19,21,27 Correspondingly, stage IV cases in the present study had the worst survival outcome. In addition, anaplastic histology was associated with a poorer outcome than FH. However, there was no significant difference in the EFS or OS rates found for the 2 histology groups, possibly because of the small number of patients in each subgroup. The identification of better prognostic markers for stratification of therapy represents an ongoing challenge for future clinical trials. Recently, Wilms tumor trials have had 2 common objectives: (1) to reduce the toxicity and late stage effects that can occur during the treatment of patients with good prognosis; and (2) to improve the survival of patients with a less favorable prognosis. The sequelae observed in survivors predominantly include cardiotoxicity, reproductive problems, renal dysfunction, and development of secondary tumors. 28 This is the first population study of renal tumors reported for the pediatric population of Hong Kong. These data provide valuable information regarding the status of renal tumors in this population, and has the potential to lead to further improvement in treatment outcome. Although the favorable Wilms tumors showed excellent outcome, the survival rate for unfavorable Wilms tumor cases remains to be improved. A future goal will be refining the risk stratification system to minimize treatment-related toxicities without compromising survival rates. 29 Although a primary limitation of our study was the small sample size of non-wilms tumor cases, a longer follow-up period and a reduction in lost follow-up cases would provide more information on the late effects of treatment and the rates of survival for each tumor stage and histopathologic group. 30 However, an important aspect of the present work was the high proportion of CCSK cases that were treated, and the excellent outcome that was achieved. A larger review of a more extensive population will help to confirm and explore the findings of this study. REFERENCES 1. Jemal A, Siegel R, Ward E, et al. Cancer statistics, 2006. CA Cancer J Clin. 2006;56:106 130. 2. Breslow N, Olshan A, Beckwith JB, et al. 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Chan et al J Pediatr Hematol Oncol Volume 36, Number 6, August 2014 24. Pastore G, Znaor A, Spreafico F, et al. Malignant renal tumours incidence and survival in European children (1978-1997): report from the Automated Childhood Cancer Information System project. Eur J Cancer. 2006;42: 2103 2114. 25. Seibel NL, Li S, Breslow NE, et al. Effect of duration of treatment on treatment outcome for patients with clear-cell sarcoma of the kidney: a report from the National Wilms Tumor Study Group. J Clin Oncol. 2004;22:468 473. 26. Lamego CM, Zerbini MC. Bone-metastasizing primary renal tumors in children. Radiology. 1983;147:449 454. 27. Kaste SC, Dome JS, Babyn PS, et al. Wilms tumour: prognostic factors, staging, therapy and late effects. Pediatr Radiol. 2008;38:2 17. 28. Mertens AC, Yasui Y, Neglia JP, et al. Late mortality experience in five-year survivors of childhood and adolescent cancer: the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study. J Clin Oncol. 2001;19:3163 3172. 29. Wright KD, Green DM, Daw NC. Late effects of treatment for Wilms tumor. Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2009;26:407 413. 30. Green DM. The treatment of stages I-IV favorable histology Wilms tumor. J Clin Oncol. 2004;22:1366 1372. 450 www.jpho-online.com r 2013 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins