The role of intrinsic motivation in the academic pursuits of nontraditional students

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264654665 The role of intrinsic motivation in the academic pursuits of nontraditional students Article July 2013 DOI: 10.1002/nha3.20033 READS 101 2 authors: Shani Shillingford University of Northern Colorado 3 PUBLICATIONS 1 CITATION Nancy Jo Karlin University of Northern Colorado 34 PUBLICATIONS 128 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE Available from: Nancy Jo Karlin Retrieved on: 09 May 2016

The role of intrinsic motivation in the academic pursuits of nontraditional students New Horizons in Adult Education & Human Resource Development 25 (3), 91-102 Shani Shillingford 1 Nancy J. Karlin 1 Abstract This article examines the role of intrinsic motivation in the academic pursuits of nontraditional students. The Academic Motivational Scale (AMS) was administered to 35 undergraduate students, 6 males and 29 females, aged 25 to 49 to explore their motivational orientations in choosing to attend college. The results of the study show that respondents endorsed more items of intrinsic motivation than extrinsic motivation or amotivation. Hence, the desire to demonstrate competence, a need for a sense of self determination, and the pleasure and satisfaction derived from the college experience played a greater role in nontraditional students academic pursuits than the external rewards such as career advancement. This information is important for college administrators in developing programs that cater to the needs of nontraditional students and facilitate degree attainment. Keywords Intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, nontraditional students, achievement motivation, amotivation The face of universities is changing. Typically, undergraduates are comprised of adults who recently left high school and are attending college to get degrees to enter the job market. However, recent trends have indicated the increasing presence of older adults, those aged 25 and above who are either attending college for the first time or are returning students. These adults are described as nontraditional students. College students between the ages of 18 and 24 are referred to as traditional students. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2005) report indicated by 2015, undergraduates of age 25 and older will be the growing population for higher education, with a related numeric decline in 18-21 year old undergraduate enrollment (p. 9). 1 University of Northern Colorado Corresponding Author: Shani Shillingford, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th Street, Greeley, CO, 80639, USA E-mail: shanishillingford@yahoo.com Copyright 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc., A Wiley Company

92 The NCES (2002) report provided the most recent definitions of the traditional and nontraditional student: the traditional undergraduate is one who earns a high school diploma, enrolls full time immediately after finishing high school, depends on parents for financial support, and either does not work during the school year or works part time (p. 1). A nontraditional student is defined as one who has either delayed enrollment into college, attends school part time, works full time while enrolled, is financially independent, has dependents other than spouse, is a single parent, or may not have a high school diploma (NCES, 2002). According to the NCES (2005) report, the reasons for delaying enrollment in college varies, including a lack of academic skills for college, lack of resources, enrollment in the military, employment, or raising a family. These students decide to return to college to obtain skills to enter the job market, for career advancement, or to change careers. The report indicated that as delayed entrants age, they tend to look to postsecondary education for vocational training, while those who delay shorter periods of time continue to report aspirations for bachelor s or even advanced degrees (p. xii). There are many factors influencing nontraditional students decision to attend college and to continue to degree completion. Many of these students are balancing families and may be working full time. Lane (2004) recognized that factors such as, dependents, part-time enrollment, and full-time employment placed nontraditional students at risk for not completing their degrees. However, nontraditional students continue to persevere and to attain undergraduate degrees. The NCES (2002) data indicate that 73% of the nontraditional students surveyed reported that personal enrichment or interest in the subject, gaining skills to advance in their job or obtain a new career, or simply completing a degree or certificate program were important factors in their perseverance. Achievement Motivation Individuals are driven to participate in activities for various reasons such as, to gain reward or to avoid punishment. A person may also engage in an activity for the pleasure they receive from participation. Two factors that guide individuals decision making for engaging in activities are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Deci and Ryan (1985) indicated that intrinsic motivation is doing an activity for itself and for the pleasure and satisfaction derived from participating in the activity. Intrinsic motivation is defined as the doing of an activity for its inherent satisfaction rather than for some separate consequence. When intrinsically motivated a person is moved to act for the fun or challenge entailed rather than because of external products, pressures, or rewards (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 56). On the other hand, extrinsic motivation involves engaging in a behavior as a means to an end, and not for its own sake. The terms intrinsic and extrinsic motivation have been expanded to include three separate subtypes. The three types of intrinsic motivation include: 1. Intrinsic motivation to know- fact of performing an activity for the pleasure and the satisfaction that one experiences while learning, exploring, or trying to understand something new 2. Intrinsic motivation to accomplish things- the fact of engaging in an activity for the pleasure and experience when one attempts to accomplish or create something 3. Intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation- engaging in activity in order to experience stimulating sensations (sensory pleasure, fun and excitement) (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The three types of extrinsic motivation proposed consist of: 1. External regulation-behavior regulated through external means such as rewards or constraints 2. Introjection-individuals begin to internalize the reasons for his or her actions

93 3. Identification-action becomes so internalized that it is judged as important to the person (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Additionally, a third motivating factor was also identified, amotivation. An amotivated person is neither intrinsically or extrinsically motivated. The individual does not perceive contingencies between the outcomes and their own actions. The behavior is caused by forces outside of an individual s own control (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Intrinsic Motivation For the current research, the main focus will be on the role of intrinsic motivation. Persons are intrinsically motivated for some activities and not others. Deci (1975) proposed that intrinsically motivated behaviors are those behaviors a person engages in to feel competent and self-determining. The challenge for an intrinsically motivated individual is to seek out an activity that provides the opportunity to feel competent and self-determined. Intrinsically motivated behaviors involve conquering challenges or reducing incongruity. Deci and Ryan (1985) developed Self-Determination Theory (SDT), which postulates that an individual engages in a behavior that helps meet their need for competence, relatedness, and autonomy. Based on the Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET), Deci and Ryan (1985) suggest that for an individual to be intrinsically motivated, they must experience satisfaction of the needs for both autonomy and competence. Interpersonal events and structures (rewards, communication, and feedback) that contribute toward feelings of competence during action can enhance intrinsic motivation for that action because they allow satisfaction for the basic psychological need of competence. However, it should be noted that feelings of competence might not enhance intrinsic motivation unless accompanied by a sense of autonomy. Based on this theory, an individual is intrinsically motivated to partake in an activity because it allows the individual the opportunity to exercise and experience one s capacities. The individual feels connected with others and seem to feel in control of their actions. Thus, the individual engages in the activity based on interest or integrated value. Furthermore, optimal challenges, positive feedback, and freedom from demeaning evaluations are all predicted to facilitate intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Research on Intrinsic Motivation Researchers have carried out studies to explore the role of intrinsic motivation on behavior. These experiments have often included investigating the effects of external rewards on intrinsic behaviors. Researchers have disputed whether external rewards influence intrinsically motivated behaviors. Rawsthorne and Elliot (1999) conducted a meta-analysis of intrinsic motivation experiments. They concluded that the results from those studies indicate that the undermining effect of performance goals relative to mastery goals was contingent on whether participants received confirming or non confirming competence feedback and on whether the experimental procedures induced a performance-approach or performance-avoidance orientation (p. 333). In these experiments, mastery goals are linked to intrinsic motivation as they challenge appraisals and support self-determination and feelings of autonomy. While performance goals increase anxiety, they are expected to produce lower intrinsic motivation. The results from the meta-analysis show that overall the pursuit of performance goals produced significantly less free choice persistence and self reported interest and enjoyment than did the pursuit of mastery goals (Rawsthorne & Elliot, 1999, p. 337). Thus, this suggests that positive rewards can impact intrinsic motivation. Pierce, Cameron, Banko, & So, 2003 investigated the positive effects of rewards and performance standards on intrinsic motivation. Two levels of reward (reward vs. no reward) and two levels of performance (constant or progressive) were used as the determining factors of intrinsic motivation. The study concluded that rewarding individuals for meeting a graded level of performance increased their intrinsic motivation. Since these rewards were not

94 perceived as controlling, they led to an increase in intrinsic motivation. The study supports the hypothesis that rewards can be used to enhance intrinsic motivation. However, other researchers have proposed that people can enjoy activities for the pleasure received and not for any perceived reward. Waterman (2005) hypothesized that since interest, flow experience, and feeling of expressiveness have been suggested as subjective experiences associated with intrinsic motivation, then an activity which leads to the aforementioned will increase an individual s intrinsic motivation. Waterman s premise is that level of effort would play a differential role in the motivation for activities that were enjoyed. The study demonstrated that when activities were compared with respect to enjoyment, those associated with higher levels of effort were reported to be more strongly associated with all forms of the subjective experiences of intrinsic motivation. Thus, concluding that both self realization values and effort play a significant role in intrinsic motivation along with self determination and perceived competence. Waterman (2005) further confirmed earlier results found in the research, where a series of studies were conducted to investigate the contribution of self determination, perceived competence, and self realization values in the subjective experience of intrinsic motivation (Waterman et al., 2003). The results of the Waterman et al. (2003) study showed that the three forms of subjective experience of intrinsic motivation (interest, flow experience, and feelings of expressiveness) were all substantially related. Hence, the strength of intrinsically motivated experiences appear to vary as a function of the extent to which the behavior engaged in is self determined, taps the perceived competence of the person, and reflects the person s perceived potentials and purposes. These experiments have all demonstrated the notion proposed by Deci and Ryan (1985) that intrinsically motivated persons engage in behaviors that promote a sense of competence and self-determination. Interestingly, other factors such as self-efficacy and perseverance have also been shown to have an effect on intrinsic motivation. Prabhu, Sutton, and Sauser (2008) studied the relationship between intrinsic motivation and creativity. Intrinsic motivation was shown to partially mediate the relationship between creativity and openness to experience and to completely mediate the relationship between creativity and self-efficacy. Thus, confirming that self-efficacy may have a positive impact on intrinsic motivation. The study demonstrated that intrinsically motivated persons are motivated because of the challenge and pleasure of the work itself, but when faced with obstacles and constant failures, it will be their perseverance that sail them through the difficult path (p. 62). Intrinsic Motivation in College Students Research on intrinsic motivation has also been extended to the classroom. Deci, Koestner, and Ryan (2001) examined the effects of external rewards and intrinsic motivation in education. According to CET, the effects on intrinsic motivation of external events such as those received in educational settings, the offering of rewards, the delivery of evaluation, the setting of deadlines, and other motivational inputs, are a function of how these events influence a person s perception of competence and self-determination. Deci, Koestner, and Ryan confirmed that verbal rewards (positive feedback) tend to have an enhancing effect on intrinsic motivation. Verbal rewards can also have a negative effect on intrinsic motivation if the interpersonal context within which they are administered is controlling rather than informational (p. 4). This suggests that if rewards are provided sufficiently to students, rewards can enhance intrinsic motivation. To explore the role of motivation in the lives of college students, Baker (2004) investigated the relationship between motivational orientation and adjustment to university, stress, and well being in a sample of university students, and also to assess the predictive value of motivation in determining academic performance. The study found that amotivation led to worse psychosocial adjustment to the university, higher levels of perceived stress, and greater psychological distress while studying. Intrinsic motivation was linked to lower perceived stress scores while studying, but was not predictive of better psychosocial adjustment to university life or greater levels of per-

95 ceived well-being. Additionally, in relation to academic performance, neither extrinsic or intrinsic motivation nor amotivation were related to academic achievement. Faye and Sharpe (2008) also explored the role of motivation in university students. They examined the relationship between psychological need fulfillment, psychosocial development and academic motivation in university students. In this study, competence and identity were found to be the two constructs most strongly associated with academic motivation. There was no significant relationship between autonomy and motivation, but a relationship was found between feelings of competence and a strong sense of identity. The findings suggest that a strong sense of self affects intrinsic academic motivation because a strong sense of self affects feelings of competence and to a lesser extent autonomy. Faye and Sharpe (2008) proposed that a relationship between autonomy and motivation was not found because university settings are not set up to promote autonomy, as one is expected to attend classes and take multiple choice tests. Also, these findings support the view that identity formation plays a critical role in facilitating academic motivation in universities. Intrinsic Motivation and Nontraditional students Further investigation of motivation type was completed with traditional and nontraditional students. Harju and Eppler s (1997) examination of college students academic motivation found that the majority of nontraditional students (74%) endorsed the learning orientation which was related to a higher level of classroom and study flow. Flow in these learning contexts can be characterized as intense concentration and involvement, strong intrinsic motivation, and enjoyment (p. 156). Moreover, nontraditional students were shown to have a higher learning goal orientation and thus a strong, highly involved intrinsic motivation. In addition, Bye, Pushkar, and Conway (2007) compared the motivations and interests of traditional and nontraditional students. Results indicated that nontraditional students reported higher levels of intrinsic motivation for learning than traditional students. Overall, nontraditional students reported higher levels of motivation than traditional students. Also, both traditional and nontraditional students reported equal amounts of extrinsic motivation, indicating the fact that the defining conditions of success within the classroom itself, and degree requirements are the same for all. The results of the study further suggest that nontraditional students maintain a higher threshold of intrinsic motivation to learn with an accompanying increase in positive affect. Similarly, Taylor and House (2010) found that more mature students, those over age 21, endorsed both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations for attending college, while those under 21 endorsed extrinsic motivations. Also, males were more likely to identify extrinsic motivation, and females both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations for attending college. These results further indicate the motivational differences between traditional and nontraditional students. Rationale for Study The extensive research on intrinsic motivation has indicated that it plays a significant role in a person s decision making. Deci and Ryan (1985) proposed that optimal challenges and freedom from demeaning evaluations are all predicted to facilitate intrinsic motivation. Furthermore, external rewards such as positive feedback can enhance intrinsic motivation (Pierce et al., 2003; Rawthorne & Elliot, 1999). An individual may choose to engage in an activity for the feelings of competence and self-determination that it ensues. In college classrooms, though structured to provide external rewards, individuals may be intrinsically motivated based on the feedback they receive. The growing trend of nontraditional students presence in university classrooms indicates that these students are finding it necessary to attend college and to attain degrees. Based on the NCES 2002 and 2005 reports, nontraditional students primarily enrolled to attain skills for a new career or to improve on job skills. These can be considered extrinsic motivations; however, intrinsic motivation also plays a role.

96 The few studies (Bye, Pushkar, & Conway, 2007; Harju, & Eppler, 1997; Taylor, & House, 2010) comparing traditional and nontraditional students show different motivating factors, with nontraditional students exhibiting higher intrinsic motivation than traditional students. Thus, it is necessary to conduct further studies on the role of intrinsic motivation in the academic pursuits of nontraditional students. Since, the NCES (2002) report indicated that when compared with their traditional counterparts, nontraditional students seeking bachelor s and associate s degrees are less likely to attain their degree goal within five years and are more likely to leave postsecondary education. Furthermore, nontraditional students are most at risk for leaving during their first year, regardless of their degree objective. Unfortunately, there is a dearth in the research on the role of intrinsic motivation in nontraditional students academic endeavors. Researchers have focused on comparing the academic motivations of nontraditional and traditional students; however, there is a need to narrow the focus on nontraditional students. These students have enrolled in universities not only for career advancement but also to tap their perceived competence and potential, and to improve their self-efficacy. Hence, the aim of this study was to examine the role of intrinsic motivation in nontraditional students decision to attend college and to explore the motivational factors of nontraditional students. This information will prove useful in the development of successful programs in universities that cater to the needs of nontraditional students and subsequently, decrease attrition rates. Method Participants Participants included 35 undergraduates (29 females, 6 males) enrolled in fall classes in a Midwestern university. The academic institution is a mid-sized university located in a mid-sized city. Ages ranged from 25 to 49 years. Participants were contacted by their professors and received either partial course credit or extra credit points. Table 1 contains the demographic data of the sample. Procedures The questionnaires were administered during a particular class period designated by the professor, and others met the researcher in a research room in the Psychology department. Participants were first asked to complete demographic information: Gender (male or female), Age, Marital status (single or never married, married, divorced or separated, and widowed), Race (white, black or African American, Asian, American Indian, Alaska native, Native Hawaiian, or other), number of children currently in household, and program of study. Then participants answered the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS), which required participants to rate 28 statements and the impact of each on their decisions to attend college. Participation in the current study took approximately 20 minutes. Upon completion of the survey, participants were asked to place completed surveys in a sealed envelope. Instruments The participants were administered the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS), a measure of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and amotivation in education. Based on the tenets of self-determination theory, the AMS was developed by Vallerand et al. (1989). It is composed of 28 items subdivided into seven subscales assessing three types of intrinsic motivation (intrinsic motivation to know, to accomplish things, and to experience stimulation), three types of extrinsic motivation (indentified regulation, external, introjection), and amotivation. The scale was first formulated in French and has been translated to English through appropriate methodological procedures. The AMS has been shown to include elements of concurrent and construct validity. The internal consistencies of all the scales were typically.80. The scales were correlated with motivational antecedents and consequences based on Cognitive Evaluation Theory (Vallerand et al, 1992).

97 Table 1. Demographic data. Characteristics Frequency Percentage Gender Male 6 17.1 Female 29 82.9 Total 35 100 Age 25-29 22 62.9 30-34 7 20 35-39 3 8.6 40-44 2 5.7 45-49 1 2.9 Total 35 100 Race White 32 91.4 Black or African American 2 5.7 Hispanic 1 2.1 Total 35 100 Marital Status Single or Never married 19 54.3 Married 15 42.9 Widowed 1 2.9 Total 35 100 No. of Children 0 21 60 1 6 17.1 2 7 20 3 1 2.9 Total 35 100 Program of Study Psychology 9 25.8 Nursing 18 51.5 Education 4 11.5 Other 4 11.2 Total 35 100

98 On the AMS, the students were required to rate, based on a Likert scale, the extent items correspond to why they are attending college. Questions are related to extrinsic motivation such as ( Because with only a high-school degree I would not find a high-paying job later on ), intrinsic motivation ( For the intense feelings I experience when I am communicating my own ideas to others ) or to amotivation ( Honestly, I don't know; I really feel that I am wasting my time in school ). There are four questions that relate to each subscale. Results Data Analysis Data collected was coded and the questionnaire was scored and analyzed based on seven subscales. Directions for scoring the AMS as provided by Vallerand et al. (1989) were used. The values for each question were entered into a scoring matrix with seven possible motivational orientations. The subscale with the highest score indicated the motivational orientation strongest for each participant. A reliability analysis of the subscales showed that all seven scales had high reliability except for the extrinsic motivation-identified subscale, Cronbach s α =.34. The scree plot obtained was slightly ambiguous and showed inflexions that would justify extracting 4 items. Based on the reliability analysis, given the low reliability of items and the resultant increase in Alpha if these items were deleted, items 1, 3, 10, 17, 24, and 30 were extracted from the final analysis. See Table 2 for listing of Cronbach s α for the seven subscales. Table 2. Cronbach s alpha for the seven subscales. Motivation Scale Cronbach s alpha Intrinsic motivation- to know.78 Intrinsic motivation- toward accomplishment.81 Intrinsic motivation- to experience.88 stimulation Extrinsic motivation- identified.34 Extrinsic motivation -introjection.89 Extrinsic motivation-external regulation.62 Amotivation.66 The seven subscales were compiled into three scales representing the three motivational orientations under investigation- intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation. Participants in the study endorsed more items related to intrinsic motivation (M = 52.94, SD= 11.48) than extrinsic motivation (M = 36.48, SD= 9.05) or amotivation (M = 4.57, SD= 1.84). The histograms below depict participants response patterns on the three motivation scales. In order to compare any group differences in scores on the three motivational scales, a series of ANOVA s were conducted. Prior to interpreting the results of the ANOVA s, a test of homogeneity of variance was conducted using Levene s Test. For these data, Levene s test was non-significant with all p values greater than.05. This indicated that the assumption of variance was met.

99 The results of the analysis show there was a significant effect of program of study on the type of motivational scales endorsed F (3,31) = 3.406, (p <.05). Post hoc analysis revealed a significant difference between those students studying psychology and those studying nursing on their extrinsic motivation subscale. There was no significant effect of gender, race, age, marital status, and number of children on the motivational scales endorsed, all p values greater than.05. Figure 1. Intrinsic Motivation Scale. Figure 2. Extrinsic Motivation Scale.

100 Figure 3. Amotivation Scale. Discussion The aim of this study was to explore the role of intrinsic motivation in the academic pursuits of nontraditional students. Based on the NCES 2002, and 2005 reports, nontraditional students were primarily extrinsically motivated to attain a college education. These motivational factors included gaining new skills for improvement in job performance, or to make a career change. However, other factors such as personal enrichment or interest in a subject, also served as determining factors in nontraditional students decisions to enroll in college. Thus, it was proposed that intrinsic motivation played a significant role in the decision making process. As stated by Deci (1975) intrinsically motivated behaviors are those behaviors a person engages in to feel competent and self-determining. This study examined the motivational orientations of males and females, of different age groups, enrolled in different programs of study. As a whole, the sample endorsed more items of intrinsic motivation than extrinsic motivation or amotivation. This supports past research (Bye, Pushkar, & Conway, 2007; Harju & Eppler, 1997; Taylor, & House, 2010) that has demonstrated that nontraditional students had higher intrinsic motivation for learning than traditional students. The results of the study show a significant difference in extrinsic motivation between those students majoring in nursing and those majoring in psychology. This difference supports NCES 2002 and 2005 reports of nontraditional students pursing degrees for career advancement. This difference demonstrates the complementary role of extrinsic motivation in nontraditional students choice of degree programs. This research was limited in the sample size and lack of diversity among the students. Further research should aim to explore the motivational orientations of nontraditional students in various departments or colleges, such as community colleges, to further explore whether the type of program enrolled in may have a difference in the motivational orientations. NCES (2005) survey reported that with age, nontraditional students tend to look to postsecond-

101 ary education for vocational training. This also implies that there might be age differences in motivational orientations, with older nontraditional students seeking external rewards such as skills in a specialized field. This study was also limited because of the convenience sample utilized. Participants are students from a mid-sized university in a Midwestern city, and thus this limits the ability to generalize to other populations. Additionally, nontraditional students in other settings such as urban areas may have different motivations for attending college and it would be useful to explore any potential differences based on geographic location. Furthermore, the use of a quantitative study limited the information that could be obtained from the students about their experiences and motivations for attending college. The use of interviews could provide additional information about the students motivation. Although there may be limitations in this study, the findings indicate that intrinsic motivation plays a vital role in nontraditional students academic pursuits. Thus, this need for self-determination and competence should be taken into consideration during program development in universities, and programs should cater curriculum to meet students motivational needs. Accordingly, Kenner and Weinerman (2011) suggested that university officials should recognize the difference between traditional and nontraditional students and provide specific tools that would help nontraditional students adjust to the university environment. Furthermore, techniques such as those proposed by Pierce et al. (2003) including rewarding individuals for meeting a graded level of performance can increase nontraditional students intrinsic motivation. Hence, rewarding the intrinsic motivation of nontraditional students could help to decrease attrition rates and make the college experience more worthwhile for nontraditional students. References Baker, S. R. (2004). Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and Amotivational Orientations: Their Role in University Adjustment, Stress, Well-Being, and Subsequent Academic Performance. Current Psychology, 23, 189-202. Bye, D., Pushkar, D., & Conway, M. (2007). Motivation, Interest, and Positive Affect in Traditional and Nontraditional Undergraduate Students. Adult Education Quarterly, 57, 141-158. doi: 10.1177/0741713606294235 Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Plenum, New York. Deci, E. L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. Plenum, New York. Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review of Educational Research, 71, 1-27. doi: 10.3102/00346543071001001 Faye, C. & Sharpe, D. (2008). Academic motivation in university: The role of basic psychological needs and identity formation. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 40, 189-199. Harju, B. L., & Eppler, M. A. (1997). Achievement motivation, flow and irrational beliefs in traditional and nontraditional students. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 24, 147. Kenner, C., & Weinerman, J. (2011). Adult Learning Theory: Applications to Non-Traditional College Students. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 41(2), 87-96. Lane, K. (2004). Sen. Clinton Unveils Plan to Help Nontraditional Students. Black Issues in Higher Education, 21 (2), 6.

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