Chapter 2 Asking & Answering Sociological Questions 1 Scientific Method (p. 36) Sociology is a science because it requires a systematic method of investigation The scientific method is organized around a series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency when researching a problem Empirical Evidence A scientific orientation often challenges what we accept as common sense If most of you are not going into Sociology or research, why should you even care? 2 2 Defining the Research problem (p. 37) All research starts with a research problem You need to pose a question for research purposes that help you bridge the gap in your understanding of a social phenomena Operational definition: Explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to measure the concept Stating exactly what is being measured Crime and gang membership 3 3
Literature Review Go to the library and search for keywords Check sociological database Scholar.google.com but NOT google nor wikipedia Want to check if somebody has already done the research If so, can you replicate it? Same outcome? If nothing has been done Your study is even more justified 4 4 Formulating the Hypothesis (p. 37) Hypothesis Speculative statement regarding the relationship between two or more variables A statement of how two or more variables are related An educated guess about how variables are linked usually an if-then statement Variable Measurable trait subject to change under certain conditions A concept which changes from case to case Independent variable Dependent variable 5 5 Exploring relationships (pp. 39-42) Evidence needed to reject or accept the hypothesis occurs in four steps: State which variable is the independent variable and which is the dependent variable Measure the initial value of the dependent variable Expose the dependent variable to the independent variable Measure the dependent variable again to see what change, if any, took place Causation One event happens before another. But does one causes the other? Correlation Change in one variable coincides with change in another 6 6
Causality vs. Correlation (pp. 39-40) 7 7 Sampling (p. 45) Often the groups sociologists want to study are so large or so dispersed that research on the whole group is impossible To construct a picture of the entire group, they take data from a subset of the population A sample is any subset of a population A population is a relatively large collection of people that a researcher studies and about which generalizations are made 8 8 Data Collection & Analysis Since you cannot ask everybody, you need to get a sample Representative Randomly selected Reliability Consistency in measurement For measurement to be reliable, the process must yield the same results when repeated Validity Actually measuring exactly what you intend to measure 9 9
Conclusion Should be an end to this research but the beginning of the next research project Can point out a need for a control variable Factor which is held constant to test the impact of the independent variable Example: if social class is held constant (or identical) does race or gender affect the independent variable?) 10 10 The Steps in the Scientific Method 11 11 Interpretive Sociology Humans engage in meaningful action every moment of the day Interpretive sociology The study of sociology that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world Scientific sociology favors quantitative data Interpretive sociology favors qualitative data Interpretive orientation is better suited in a natural setting Investigators interact with people 12 12
Types of Research Designs Research design Detailed plan for collecting data scientifically Quantitative research Data is collected in numerical form Typically through the use of surveys Qualitative research It relies on field notes Open-ended questions 13 13 Surveys (pp. 44-45) Advantages Survey must have a specific plan for asking questions and recording answers Most common is a questionnaire Series of written statements or questions Cheap and easy to administer More anonymous Good for sensitive topic Disadvantages Cannot probe details Cannot clarify answers People can throw them away or rejects requests 14 14 Interviews Advantages Researcher personally asks subjects a series of questions Gives participants freedom to respond as they wish Can clarify details; ask follow-up questions High response rate because people won t turn down a person asking for help Disadvantages More expensive Person might not tell the truth Bias based on age, race or gender of interviewer 15 15
Ethnography (pp. 43-44) Collection of data through direct participation and/or observation of group Research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities Called Fieldwork Fieldwork makes most participant observation exploratory and descriptive Researcher joins group under study Challenges Acceptance into group Sociologists need to understand what they observe Can t allow friendships to influence the results 16 16 Qualitative & Quantitative Research Qualitative Does not use statistical methods More interpretive, shows more nuance Quantitative Uses statistical methods Provides data to calculate averages and percents 17 17 Comparison of Research Techniques Tool Pros Cons Survey Large number of variables Difficult to focus on a few variables Ethnography Studies behavior in home setting Time-consuming 18 18
Experiments (pp. 45-46) Attempt to test an hypothesis Cause and effect relationships One event happens before another Classic Experiment Experimental group and control group Example: Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment (unethical) Example: The Zimbardo Prison Experiment (unethical) 19 19 Historical Analysis (pp. 48-49) Sociologically, it is crucial to have a time perspective because the past will explain the present Examines sociological themes over time Use of oral history Interviews of people about past historical events Researchers might rely on written documents and records 20 20 Comparison of Research Techniques Tool Survey Ethnography Qualitative or Quantitative Usually quantitative Usually qualitative Experiment Usually quantitative Historical analysis Usually qualitative 21 21
Comparative Research (p. 48) Making comparison is central to sociology because it allows to clarify many aspects of a particular research Example: Comparing the infant mortality rate (number of deaths of infants under one year old per 1,000 live births) of the U.S. with other countries will answer questions about the quality of life and health care in both places U.S. (2009): 6.26/1,000 Sweden (2009): 2.75/1,000 Kenya (2009): 54.7/1,000 22 22 Prediction and Probability Sociology analyzes, explains, and predicts human social behavior in terms of trends and probabilities Example: If you are a Black male, 16 to 29, you are 6 times more likely to be arrested for a given offense than a White male of the same age, from the same neighborhood and the same socioeconomic background, for the same offense, and with the same prior arrest record 23 23 Misuse of Statistics Interpreting probability as certainty Example: Finding that women are more likely than men to favor strict gun control only means that women have a higher probability of favoring strict gun control than men It does not mean that all women favor strict gun control and all men do not favor it 24 24
Statistics in Sociology Percentage is the same as parts per hundred If 22% of U.S. children are poor, for every 100 children randomly selected from the population, approximately 22 will be poor Rate is the same as parts per some number, such as per 10,000 or 100,000 The homicide rate in 2003 was 5.7 killed per 100,000 For every 100,000 in the population, 5.7 were murdered 25 25 Misuse of Statistics Citing a correlation as a cause A correlation reveals an association between things they do not necessarily indicate that one thing causes the other Overgeneralizing Example: Studying only men, and then generalizing conclusions to both men and women Building in bias Bias can be built into a questionnaire by little more than careless wording 26 26 Putting It All Together: Ten Steps in Sociological Research 1. What is your topic? Research question? 2. What have others already learned? 3. What, exactly, are your hypotheses? 4. What will you need to carry out research? 5. Might the research cause harm? 6. What method will you use? 7. How will you record the data? 8. What do the data tell you? 9. What are your conclusions? 10. How can you share what you have learned? 27 27
Ethics American Sociological Association Code of Ethics 1. Maintain objectivity 2. Respect subjects rights to privacy and dignity 3. Protect subjects from harm 4. Preserve confidentiality 5. Get informed consent from research participants 6. Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance 7. Disclosure all sources of financial support 28 28 Ethics Whenever you do research, you rely to some extent on other people s ideas. You must always acknowledge when you have used others ideas, whether you quote from another's work directly, or paraphrase words, or simply take someone's ideas and advice into consideration To do otherwise constitutes plagiarism To avoid these problems, always cite your sources 29 29 How to Quote In general, quote as little as possible One key term is better than a phrase and a short phrase is better than an entire sentence Long quotations simply show that you cannot synthesize If you do need to use a short quote, use the format indicated in the APA style sheet If you use a quote longer than three typed lines (something you rarely need to do, especially in a short paper), then use single-spacing, with no quotation marks, and indent the quote five spaces on the left side of the page (to indicate that you are quoting) The author s name, the year of publication, and page numbers (all in parentheses) will follow the quote after the final period 30 30
Polling Question If a university asks you to complete an anonymous, written survey asking questions about your sexual attitudes, experiences, and behaviors, how likely is it you will agree to complete the survey? A.) Very likely B.) Somewhat likely C.) Unsure D.) Somewhat unlikely E.) Very unlikely 31 31 Polling Question A university asks you to participate in an interview asking questions about your cheating attitudes, experiences, and behaviors. The researchers assure your confidentiality. How likely is it you will agree to the interview? A.) Very likely B.) Somewhat likely C.) Unsure D.) Somewhat unlikely E.) Very unlikely 32 32