Educatinal Leadership and Demcracy Prfessr Jhn West-Burnham Senir Visiting Research Fellw Centre fr Educatinal Leadership University f Manchester 1. Understanding demcracy 2. The rle f educatin in a demcratic sciety 3. Educatinal leadership and demcracy 4. Learning t be a citizen 5. Building demcratic capacity Intrductin This paper is a cntributin t a fundamentally imprtant debate the relatinship between educatin, educatinal leadership and the creatin f a demcratic sciety. The central thesis f the paper is that demcracy and citizenship can nt be taught but have t be learnt thrugh authentic experience. The rle f educatin leaders is t create an envirnment in schls in which the principles f demcratic sciety can be experienced and s understd and acted n. This paper is nt a call fr demcracy in schls it is abut making schls mre demcratic. The paper starts with discussins abut the nature f demcracy and educatin and hw they might interact, thrugh a discussin abut the nature f educatinal leadership t detailed analysis f the thery and practice f educatin fr demcracy.
1. Understanding Demcracy The debate abut the status and nature f demcracy is akin t that abut whether teachers are prfessinals. It is pssible t develp criteria t demnstrate that teachers are, r are nt, prfessinal. The debate hinges n the relative significance attached t a range f criteria and is usually reslved by subjective judgement. One way f reslving what is an increasingly circular debate is t abandn the emphasis n status and fcus instead n practice prfessinalism rather than prfessinal. S with demcracy; rather than try t reslve the differences between cmpeting claims this discussin will fcus n the cnsensus prevalent in Eurpe as t what demcratic scieties actually d. This is t mve frm a relativistic Platnic debate abut demcracy as a pssible ideal t a mre pragmatic apprach. The fllwing list f criteria fr a demcratic sciety need t be seen as interdependent and in n particular rder f pririty. The emphasis is n a demcratic sciety rather than the plitical system. Hwever, it may be useful at this stage t ffer a brief and limited typlgy f demcracy as a plitical system t clarify the debate. The mst cmmn usages f demcracy as a plitical system seem t cver the fllwing brad definitins: Pure demcracy: a system where all citizens have a direct invlvement in the plitical prcess. This has prbably never existed ancient Athens was a demcracy nly fr free men, wmen and slaves had n right t participate. Representative demcracy: this cvers a wide range f practice it is ften referred t as Western demcracy and is based n the electin f representatives t a legislature at regular prescribed intervals. Such representatives are nt delegates; therefre, chice is restricted t chsing thse wh will exercise real chice. Ttalitarian demcracy: usually a ne party state where by electins regularly returns ne party t pwer. This is ften facilitated by the lack f any ppsitin parties r the use f criminal and crrupt practices at electins. In the cntext f this discussin demcracy is mre than the arrangements fr the allcatin f plitical pwer. A demcratic sciety can be said t have the fllwing characteristics: High significance is attached t individual freedm and persnal liberties guaranteed by the rule f law. In their persnal and plitical lives individuals are able t make chices which directly infrm plitical and scial systems, with the majrity will prevailing but minrity rights being respected. There is ptimum participatin in plitical and scial prcesses with apprpriate levels f influence. Representatives selected thrugh the plitical prcess are answerable and accuntable. Demcratic systems are pen with maximum access t infrmatin and the sharing f knwledge t allw infrmed cnsent. A primary functin f gvernments elected by a demcratic sciety is t prtect the safety, wellbeing and ecnmic and scial security f its citizens. 2
Demcratic scieties wrk t ensure that their members lead lives which allw pprtunities fr persnal grwth, creativity, artistic expressin and scial fulfilment. The wrds which are highlighted prbably prvide a basic vcabulary f demcracy. Each wrd carries a cmplex web f meaning and interpretatin and will be cnditined by histrical, cultural, scial and ecnmic imperatives. Hence there is a need t avid summative judgements and t see demcracy as a relativistic and frmative cncept rather than an abslute. The nly caveat t this psitin is that the prcess has t be ne f enhancement f the varius factrs rather than their ersin r limitatin. A demcratic sciety is therefre ne that seeks t enhance, cnslidate and extend the six characteristics utlined abve. A demcratic sciety is ne that is cmmitted t change, grwth and imprvement in its institutins and systems. This is a key defining characteristic in cntradistinctin t ttalitarian regimes which invariably seek t prevent change and develpment. The prcess f becming a demcratic sciety is the prcess f maximising each f the six elements abve which are nw cnsidered in detail. Individual Freedm Fr many this is the sine qua nn f demcracy. It is the mst evcative claim f any struggle t achieve demcracy. Freedms have traditinally had bth psitive and negative expressins. The psitive freedms include freedm f speech, f assembly, f cnscience. The negative freedms include freedm frm want, hunger, persecutin etc. Cmbine these tw appraches and a challenging manifest emerges f a range f persnal liberties, enshrined in a cnstitutin and guaranteed thrugh the rule f the law. Thus demcracy includes nt just the right t vte fr a gvernment but als the right t criticise that gvernment and t prpse alternatives t it a pint lst n mst ttalitarian demcracies. Hwever, such rights autmatically entail the recgnitin f the rights f thers t engage in the same prcess and therein lies the great strength f demcratic scieties and their fundamental weakness. Mnbit (2003) captures this tensin: Demcracy is unattainable unless it is brkered by institutins, mandated by the peple and made accuntable t them, whse primary purpse is t prevent the strng frm ppressing the weak and t prevent peple f all statins frm reslving their differences by means f vilence. The cllective nun fr such institutins is gvernment. S demcratic gvernment, f ne kind r anther, appears t be the leastwrst system we can envisage. (p.41) Whatever ethical authritative surce is clamed fr individual freedms and persnal rights it des seem that nly a demcracy can safeguard them in practice. Chice Persnal and cllective chice is fundamental t a demcratic sciety. I am nt living in a demcracy if I can nt chse which bks t read, which mvies t watch, hw and what t wrship, whm t assciate with etc. Equally I have t be able t chse 3
which gvernment will make chices n my behalf. But again I have t accept that my chices will eventually be circumscribed by the majrity. There will always be a tensin between the stated preferences f the majrity and the views f experts; hwever: mst plitical decisins are nt simply decisins abut hw t d smething. They are decisins abut what t d, decisins that invlve values, trade-ffs, and chices abut what kind f sciety peple shuld live in. There is n reasn t think that experts are better at making thse decisins than the average vter. Surwiecki (22004) (p.267) It might be tempting t think the mre chice the better the demcracy is a cuntry with 14 plitical parties mre demcratic than the cuntry with tw? The issue is bviusly qualitative rather than quantitative it depends hw real the ptins are, hw genuine and significant the alternatives are. There des seem t be a very high crrelatin between levels f civic engagement e.g. vting and the perceived validity f the chice: the greater the hegemny between parties the lwer the turn-ut at electins. It culd be that plitical cnsensus denies demcratic vigur. The increasing technical cmplexity f mdern scieties has tended t prduce deference t experts and a willingness t surrender certain fundamental chices in rder t preserve perceived greater freedms. A cmbinatin f apathy and deference has tended t infantilise citizens in many scieties creating dependency n a gvernment that knws best. Participatin Participatin refers t the extent t which the members f a demcratic sciety are actually invlved in the plitical prcess. In a pure demcracy presumably every citizen wuld be directly invlved in every decisin. The scale and cmplexity f mdern states clearly militates against this. In such systems demcracy is essentially diluted int a prcess f electing representatives wh are perceived t have a mandate t exercise chices n behalf f their cnstituents. Participatin therefre becmes symblic, vting is n generic issues ver a lng time scale except where the issue is deemed s significant that a referendum is require hwever these are ften advisry. Thus plitical representatives becme surrgates, and, accrding t lcal plitical traditins, delegates r representatives. Either way they are invariably deemed t be accuntable directly thrugh the ballt bx and indirectly thrugh being answerable t the same laws as every ther citizen. The greater the level f participatin the greater the level f accuntability which is manifested in mral terms as well as legal requirements. Openness Access t infrmatin is fundamental t the infrmed cnsent that is central t any ntin f a demcratic sciety. The validity f cnsent is directly prprtinate t the integrity f the infrmatin n which it is based. Thus mst demcratic scieties will wrk t minimise the amunt f data that has restricted access and wrk t make the functins f gvernment as pen as pssible, subject t persnal cnfidentiality and 4
the needs f natinal and cmmercial security. Openness is nt abut access; it is als abut the right t publish and debate s as t encurage the debate that infrms the giving f cnsent. One significant trend f the twentieth century might be termed the paternalism f the prfessins. The dminance f the prfessinal classes acrss sciety led t the culture f need t knw in medicine, natinal security, educatin and increasingly acrss a wide range f plitical prcesses. It is remarkable hw, acrss Eurpe, there is such a wide spectrum as t what shuld be classified as secret r cnfidential. Prtectin Demcratic scieties accept a respnsibility fr the safety and well-being f their citizens. Thus demcratic scieties ensure the prvisin f educatin, health care, husing and security and ensure that there is apprpriate prvisin fr the vulnerable and disadvantaged members f sciety. In ding this they demnstrate that demcracy is as much abut the quality f life as abut plitical prcesses. Persnal Grwth Demcracy is abut the capacity t lead a full and rich life i.e. t give expressin t every aspect f what it means t be human. A demcratic sciety is enabling in that it creates the envirnment which allws individuals t be able t chse a life that is enriching and fulfilling fr them. It recgnises that ver and abve scial and ecnmic security there is a need fr persnal creativity t be expressed in the widest pssible ways. One f the signs f a healthy and effective demcratic cmmunity is diversity in the arts and literature. In his discussin f Jhn Dewey s view f demcracy Bisvert (1998) summaries Dewey s mdel f demcratic life which is: difficult and challenging. It is nt an easy path. Demcracy requires vigilance, effrt, and experimentatin. The experimental spirit is imprtant in rder that demcracies may always mdify the means enacted tward the realizatin f the ideal. A demcracy shuld be judged by the way all f its citizens are able t develp their capacities and thus grw in effective freedm. It shuld be judged by the way it encurages individuality (p.71-72) Fr Dewey demcracy is abut the extent t which the individual can flurish in cmmunity and sciety but this is a reciprcal relatinship the grwth f the individual is a direct expressin f engagement in the cmmunity and sciety. What the argument fr demcracy implies is the best way t prduce initiative and cnstructive pwer is t exercise it. Pwer, as well as interest, cmes by use and practice The delicate and difficult task f develping character and gd judgement in the yung needs every stimulus and inspiratin pssible I think, that unless demcratic habits and thught and actin are part f the fibre f a peple, plitical 5
demcracy is insecure. It cannt stand in islatin. It must be buttressed by the presence f demcratic methds in all scial relatinships. (1937: pp345-6) Fr almst every persn in a demcratic sciety the single mst imprtant relatinship after family and cmmunity is the educatinal prcess. The next sectin will fcus n the nature f educatin within a demcratic sciety. 2. The Rle f Educatin in a Demcratic Sciety The mdel f demcracy prpsed in the previus sectin is deeply rted in literate and engaged citizens. Indeed it culd be argued that literacy is fundamental t a demcratic sciety: hwever it is literacy in a cultural sense as well as a technical skill related t reading and writing. Building n Dewey s mdel f demcracy Bisvert summaries his cre prpsitins fr educatin: 1. A system f educatin in a demcratic sciety must nt nly be pen t all its citizens, but must make a cncerted effrt t succeed in well educating them. In practice, this means paying attentin t the differing situatins f children entering the educatinal system. 2. The educatinal system must help increase freedm as pwer t select and accmplish adequate life-prjects. It must als fster the grwth f individuality. 3. Demcratic educatin must widen the scpe f student interests. Understanding histry, the sciences, painting, music and literature are the prerequisites t breaking dwn barriers between classes and establishing a cntext fr wider shared interests. 4. Educatin in a demcratic sciety must als inculcate the habits f taking accunt f thers prir t making decisins.demcratic practice is marked by taking thers int accunt, by cnsideratins f cnsequences and hw they impact beynd their immediately perceived benefit fr the agent. (Pp.107-108) Dewey draws a very clear distinctin between educatin and schling. Schling des nt, f itself, cnstitute the basis fr the develpment f a demcratic sciety. Schling has t be seen as a necessary but nt sufficient, cmpnent f educatin. The prevailing imperative f schling is largely ecnmic and vcatinal rather than demcratic. The tensin between schling and educating can be represented in the fllwing mdel: Schling Teaching Infrmatin Generic Cmpetencies Linear Emplyability Educating Learning Knwledge Individual Qualities Cmplex Humanity Fig.1 Schling and Educating 6
In this mdel schling is presented as being essentially reductinist, instrumental and limited. Mst mdern demcracies talk f educatin but in fact fcus n schling and this is manifested in the daily experience f schl students acrss the wrld. Teaching and Learning It is nly necessary t lk in many classrms t see that they are fcused n the teacher and designed fr listening rather than engaging in learning. Mst schls (and schl systems) have high cnfidence in what they teach (the curriculum) and hw they teach it (the rle f the teacher). The emphasis is n the delivery f the curriculum t a class nt n the learning f the individual. This is maintained mst directly in the autmatic chrnlgical chrt prgressin fund in mst systems, the prescribed curriculum and increasingly prescribed mdels f teaching, the timetabling prcess and the hierarchical rganizatin f mst schls. Few schls are designed with learning as the a priri f the educatinal experience. In fact, few systems, let alne schls, have any shared public definitin f learning as the basis fr designing the educatinal experience. Infrmatin and Knwledge The lack f a shared definitin f learning inevitably leads t a fcus n the replicatin f infrmatin rather than the creatin f knwledge in schl systems. This is mst pwerfully demnstrated in assessment systems which tend t fcus n the presentatin f right answers which are derived frm a curriculum presented by teachers. Even in higher educatin there are very few examples f assessment fcused n the creatin f knwledge. In many systems preparatin fr living in a demcracy has becme a subject called citizenship t be taught, memrised, replicated and assessed rather than a prcess based n experiences allwing individuals t create their wn knwledge, demnstrated thrugh understanding. Generic and Individual Althugh mst systems claim t fcus n the individual (and assessment generally des this) the experience f schling is largely generic. The schling system is based n chrt prgressin, the teaching f grups and limited chices usually ffered within narrw cnfines it is nt even table d hôte, let alne a la carte, it is the n chice cnference dinner. It is the mdel T Frd, any clur, as lng as it s black. Thus the preparatin fr exercising chice in a demcratic sciety is t be tld there is a chice nt t learn hw t exercise it as an individual by building persnal understanding. The mvement t persnalizatin f the public services is a significant antidte t the lng established pattern f generic prvisin. In educatin it has the ptential t enable students t chse: What they learn. When they learn. Hw they learn. Wh they learn with. 7
It wuld be wrng t underestimate the impact n schling f these simple prpsitins and equally the need t build capacity t enable such chices t be made. Hwever, fr the Department f Educatin and Skills in England: T build a successful system f persnalised learning, we must begin by acknwledging that giving every single child the chance t be the best they can be, whatever their talent r backgrund, is nt the betrayal f excellence, it is the fulfilment f it. Persnalised learning means high quality teaching that is respnsive t the different ways students achieve their best. There is a clear mral and educatinal case fr pursuing this apprach. A system that respnds t individual pupils, by creating an educatin path that takes accunt f their needs, interests and aspiratins, will nt nly generate excellence, it will als make a strng cntributin t equity and scial justice. (DfES) Cmpetencies and Qualities The cncept f an educated persn is cmplex and elusive; there can be n aspect f the educatin prcess which is nt cntestable. The imperative t mass educatin in demcratic scieties has tended t see a reductinist apprach t the curriculum in rder t a/ allw fr cnsistency and unifrmity and b/ facilitate measurement t supprt utcmes and perfrmance based mdels f accuntability. This has inevitably led t a fcus n thse aspects f schling which can be measured thus the emphasis is n the tangible, the pragmatic and the instrumental. The qualities f an educated persn a mral sense, an engagement with cultural issues, the ability t debate and questin are inevitably subrdinated t thse elements which are cntrllable. Schling tends t perate n the lwest cmmn denminatr; schling is a necessary, but nt sufficient cmpnent f educatin but t ften the tw terms are seen as synnymus. Linear and Cmplex Schling is a linear prcess this is manifested in many ways: Chrnlgical prgressin thrugh the schl system. The frmal, structured nature f the timetable. Schemes f wrk and lessn plans. The rganisatin f many classrms. Educatin, by cntrast, is highly cmplex it can take place any time, anywhere. It is nt bunded by a curriculum, a classrm r the presence f a teacher. The family, cmmunity and peer grup may well have greater impact than the schl. What is taught at schl may nt be understd until the learner is at wrk r in any ne f numerus scial situatins. Educatin ften takes place by chance, in a randm and nn-sequential way. 8
Emplyability and Humanity Fr many educatin systems the fundamental purpse f schling is t ensure a suitably qualified wrkfrce. This is bth a natinal imperative and a persnal entitlement. Hwever, the extent t which the schling system actually creates yung peple wh are equipped t start wrk Is a strngly debated tpic in many demcratic cuntries. Schling systems grew up in western style demcracies when the demand was fr large numbers f cmpliant wrkers with a relatively lw skill base t staff factries engaged in mass prductin. The wrld f wrk has changed in these cuntries and schls have failed t keep up. It is the brad range f human qualities, rather than the narrw and limited view f specific skills that are needed fr emplyment in the mdern wrld, cping with cmplexity and living a full and rewarding life. Such qualities might include: emtinal intelligence; a cmmitment t persnal grwth and learning; perseverance and ptimism; the ability t live and wrk interdependently; a clear sense f persnal values. Of curse, schling des nt preclude the develpment f such qualities but they are ften incidental and marginalised by the limited view f the curriculum. The danger f a technical and functinalist view f educatin is that it will create dependency and inhibit the develpment f thse individual qualities which are fundamental t citizenship in a healthy and vibrant demcracy. 3. Educatin Leadership and Demcracy There is an inevitable tensin between prevailing mdels f leadership and the characteristics f demcracy described previusly. In essence, it has been argued that demcracy is abut ptimising chice and participatin. Much f the discussin abut leadership, by cntrast, tends t fcus n the individual the idea f the her leader, the credence that is still attached t the ntin f the charismatic leader. The prevailing rthdxy abut leadership identifies a range f distinctive characteristics: Leadership is fcused n ne individual wh ccupies the mst senir psitin in the hierarchy. Leaders are invested with symblic status. Leaders are seen as having primary respnsibility fr the visin and values f their rganisatin and the parallel prcess f securing cmmitment. In many schl systems leaders have a clear persnal accuntability fr the perfrmance f their schls. Leaders ften have significant pwers f patrnage and cntrl ver resurces. These pints are reinfrced by the structure f many schls which is usually in the frm f hierarchy with levels f pwer and authrity being determined by the 9
principal/headteacher. The prfessinal career structure f teachers in many educatinal systems wrks thrugh a prcess f increasing prximity t pwer. This trend is reinfrced by tw further factrs. Firstly, in many western-style demcracies leadership in general, and in educatin in particular, remains an essentially masculine mdel with much f the language assciated with leadership being expressed thrugh essentially masculine metaphrs. This is reinfrced by the dminance f Angl-Saxn perspectives n the nature f rganisatins, scial relatinships and value systems. Secndly, educatin, like many ther aspects f sciety has cme t be dminated by ntins f techncraticefficiency and perfrmance. As Apple, (1982) puts it: The strategic imprt f the lgic f technical cntrl in schls lies in its ability t integrate int ne discurse what are ften seen as cmpeting idelgical mvements, and, hence, t generate cnsent frm each f the,. The need fr accuntability and cntrl by administrative managers, the real needs f teachers fr smething that is practical t use with their students, the interest f the state in efficient prductin and cst savings, the cncerns f parents fr quality educatin that wrks (a cncern that will be cded differently by different classes and class segments), industrial capital s wn requirements fr efficient prductin and sn n, can be jined. (p.151) The centralizing tendency f many gvernments has seen plicy becme increasingly cncerned with practice with higher levels f specificity and cntrl. This has tended t reinfrce the pwer f institutinal leaders by cmprmising individual prfessinal autnmy. In sme systems there is a stubbrn resistance t this trend but the received wisdm f schl imprvement equates the effectiveness f the schl with the persnal effectiveness f the principal/headteacher. There is n dubt that ne individual can have a substantial impact n the effectiveness and perfrmance f a schl. But at what cst? The greater the emphasis n the individual the greater the ptential cst in terms f disempwerment, lss f capacity, limited sustainability and failure t ptimise the full ptential f the staff. As Lambert (1998) expresses it: When we equate the pwerful cncept f leadership with the behaviurs f ne persn, we are limiting the achievement f bradbased participatin by a cmmunity r a sciety. Schl leadership needs t be a brad cncept that is separated frm persn, rle, and a discrete set f individual behaviurs. It needs t be embedded in the schl cmmunity as a whle. Such a bradening f the cncept f leadership suggests shared respnsibility fr a shared purpse f cmmunity. (p5) If leadership is perceived as the characteristics f ne persn, trait thery, then it will inevitably cmprmise grwth. Hwever, if leadership is perceived as ne manifestatin f the demcratic prcess i.e. it is a cllective capacity rather than persnal status. Lambert (1998) defines it thus: 10
The key ntin in this definitin is that leadership is abut learning tgether, and cnstructing meaning and knwledge cllectively and cllabratively. It invlves pprtunities t surface and mediate perceptins, values, beliefs, infrmatin, and assumptins thrugh cntinuing cnversatins; t inquire abut and generate ideas tgether; t seek t reflect upn and make sense f wrk in the light f shared beliefs and new infrmatin; and t create actins that grw ut f these new understandings. Such is the cre f leadership. (pp5-6) This definitin places leadership as a demcratic prcess rather than as an alternative t demcracy. There is a danger f versimplifying the debate t a cntinuum f dictatrship t demcracy but in schls the ptential fr ne individual t exercise significant persnal, and smetimes arbitrary pwer, are cnsiderable. Lambert s ntin f building leadership capacity requires a significant cnceptual shift if leadership is t be a means f achieving and mdelling demcratic practice rather than an alternative t it. Immature Persnal Pwer Hierarchy Lw trust Dependency Mature Shared authrity Teams High trust Interdependency Cntrl Delegatin Empwerment Subsidiarity Fig.2 Shared Leadership Fig.2 ffers a mdel f shared leadership which seeks t demnstrate the relatinship between the varius factrs that determine the nature f rganisatinal relatinships. The varius elements can be defined thus: Cntrl pwer and authrity lcated with ne persn r a small grup. Very limited participatin and chice fr the majrity; relatinships are essentially hierarchical with clear lines f cmmand and frmal answerability with sanctins: a dependency culture based n immature scial relatinships. Delegatin a balance f the handing ver f respnsibility and authrity. On the left hand side f the cntinuum respnsibility will tend t utweigh authrity. Relatinships are hierarchical and bureaucratic with clear definitins f areas f respnsibility. Empwerment the level f authrity is sufficient r greater than is needed t d the jb. Individuals are able t exercise chice and discretin in their wrk within the cntext f brad rganisatinal imperatives which they have cntributed t. 11
Subsidiarity the cncept f subsidiarity is prbably best understd as a frm f Federatin high degrees f autnmy within a interdependent structure with significant levels f chice and decisin making at lcal level. This mvement frm left t right acrss the cntinuum is characterised by a grwth in chice, participatin, trust and authrity; the mvement frm an immature cntrlling relatinship t a mature interdependent relatinship in which leadership is shared. In Crick s (2002) terms: Civic republicanism, that is the demcratic spirit f direct participatin, can and shuld be firmly rted in regins, lcalities, neighburhds; and all pwers that can be devlved shuld be devlved. (p119) And, f curse, this applies as much t pupils and students as it des t teachers and all wh wrk in schls. The mvement frm cntrl t subsidiarity needs t be a feature f the whle schl in rder t infrm hw teams and departments, and mst imprtantly classrms, perate. Such an apprach creates an authentically demcratic schl where participatin and chice are increased in a valid and genuine way at every pprtunity. Fr Heifetz (2003) this means: The mst interesting leadership perates withut anyne experiencing anything remtely similar t the experience f fllwing When mbilised, allies and friends becme nt fllwers but active participants emplyees r citizens wh themselves ften lead in turn by taking respnsibility fr tackling tugh challenges, ften beynd expectatins and ften beynd their authrity. They becme partners. And when mbilised, ppsitin and fence-sitters becme engaged with the issues, prvked t wrk thrugh the prblems f the lss, lyalty and cmpetence embedded in the change they are challenged t make. (p69) The mvement frm immature t mature rganisatins, frm cntrl cultures t genuinely demcratic institutins may invlve a pwer sacrifice. It is an act f significant persnal curage fr a leader t deliberately seek t create the situatin where persnal pwer is replaced by shared authrity and rganisatinal rles, structures, plicies and prcesses are changed t reinfrce t reinfrce the change. It may well be that this leaves the traditinal schl leader in a cmplex and ambiguus situatin where external accuntability is unchanged but internal relatinships are ttally altered. The changes are demnstrated in the fllwing mdel: 12
Old Order Persnal Pwer Hierarchy Cntrl Directin Instructin Transactin Individual Status New Order Shared Authrity Subsidiarity Chice Develpment Dialgue Transfrmatin Cllective Engagement Fig.3 Educatinal Leadership fr Demcratic Educatin 4. Learning t be a Citizen The dminant activity in mst schling systems is the delivery, memrisatin and replicatin f infrmatin. The dminant mdes f teaching invlve teacher cntrl f what is taught, hw it is taught, hw it is rganised and hw it is assessed. There is thus very little f what takes place in schls and classrms which mdels, in any way, the fundamental principles f demcracy. This directly cntradicts much f what we are cming t understand as the basic principles f effective learning. It is nt enugh t prvide infrmatin abut what demcracy is in rder t build cmmitment t, and engagement with, demcratic principles three key elements need t be in place: the schl and classrm need t mdel demcratic principles in practice; learning abut demcracy has t be experiential; learning has t be rted in individual understanding. Demcracy and citizenship are nt subjects they are ways f life. It wuld be impssible t develp scientific understanding withut experimentatin, skills in sprt can nt be develped by lectures, and drama invlves active engagement and activity. It is nt necessary fr schls t be demcracies in rder fr them t fster demcratic engagement. Demcracy is always a qualified and relative cncept. Hwever, it is necessary fr demcracy t be perceived as a way f living which requires the applicatin f knwledge, skills and persnal qualities. Schls can wrk t be mre demcratic than they are by using demcratic prcesses which prvide valid experiences that enhance engagement and understanding. The danger is that demcracy becmes a subject t be taught rather than a way f life t be lived. Schling largely perates as a vehicle fr the delivery f a curriculum, largely thrugh subjects. It is these subjects that frm the basis fr the structure f the schl experience and are the nly recgnised utcmes in terms f assessment and accreditatin. Chmsky (2000) identifies the tensins and prblems in this apprach. Any schl that has t impse the teaching f demcracy is already suspect. The less demcratic schls are, the mre they need t teach abut demcratic ideals. If schls were really demcratic, in the sense f prviding pprtunities fr children t experience demcracy 13
thrugh practice, they wuldn t feel the need t indctrinate them with platitudes abut demcracy. (p27) The best way t discver hw a functining demcracy wrks is t practice it. Well, schls dn t d that very well. A gd measure f functining demcracy in schls and in sciety is the extent t which the thery apprximates reality, and we knw that in bth schls and sciety there is a large gulf between the tw. (p28) The debate abut the place f demcracy in educatin has t link t the increasingly sphisticated debate abut the nature f learning in schls. Schling tends t fcus n what might be described as shallw learning the memrisatin and replicatin f infrmatin in a prcess that is largely extrinsically mtivated. This apprach inevitably results in cmpliance and dependency - the very antithesis f demcratic principles. Educatin, by cntrast, will be mre cncerned with deep learning, the cnversin f infrmatin int knwledge thrugh a prcess f reflectin, testing and applicatin. Deep learning is abut intrinsic mtivatin where individuals accept respnsibility fr their wn learning and develpment. Persnal understanding is the key utcme f the learning prcess; it is the direct manifestatin f the mvement frm generic infrmatin t persnal knwledge. Knwledge is internalised infrmatin which enables and infrms actin. Thus I might read a bk abut hw t drive a car but it is nly when I engage in the prcess f learning t drive that the infrmatin in the bk becmes practical knwledge that infrms my ability t drive. The essential stages in mving frm infrmatin t knwledge; frm the generic instructin t the persnal can be summarised as: The presentatin f relevant infrmatin thrugh lectures, reading etc. Mdelling f that infrmatin thrugh discussin, debate, exercises, simulatins, experiments. Applicatin f the emerging understanding int real-life situatins in which theries and hyptheses are tested against experience. Feedback, review and reflectin n the implicatins f the inactin between thery and practice. Supprt in imprving practice, applicatin in new cntexts, building and extending cnfidence. This prgressin is, f curse, artificially linear and will vary frm individual t individual but certain factrs are cmmn t all learning t make this prcess wrk: The develpment f a shared vcabulary that facilitates dialgue and s enhances understanding. Intrinsic mtivatin based n perceived relevance and significance. Supprt fr the learning prcess based n mentring and feedback. The identificatin f the qualities and skills that are needed t supprt the develpment f understanding. Opprtunities t fail safely n the way t persnally valid success. 14
Preskill, Vermilya and Oter (2000) identify a range f qualities r dispsitins which are necessary t effective dialgue and therefre mdel the essential attributes f demcratic life: Hspitality: Participatin: Mindfulness: Humility: Mutuality: Deliberatin: Appreciatin: Hpe: Autnmy: inviting, engaging and welcming the expectatin that all will cntribute and becme invlved sensitivity and awareness the recgnitin that n ne individual can have a mnply f truth r insight recgnitin and respect fr thers careful and deliberate thinking based n lgic, analysis, and evidence recgnitin, acknwledgement, celebratin and respect An ptimistic and psitive utlk Balancing the needs fr individuals t retain their persnal integrity while wrking interdependently. These qualities and dispsitins seem fundamental t any cllabrative human enterprise; they are fundamental t a successful team, the effective classrm and any cllabrative human activity. Crucially they are the pre-requisites fr successful debate and dialgue and thus serve as mdels fr the demcratic prcess. These qualities and dispsitins are underpinned by a range f skills and behaviurs which need t be explicitly defined and addressed. Such skills and behaviurs might include: deep listening; giving feedback; summarising and reviewing; building cnsensus, managing cnflict; pen and frmative questining; building-n and enriching cntributins; recgnising multiple perspectives; challenging and testing assumptins; reflectin; securing cnsensus and agreement. The cmbinatin f this list f qualities and skills culd serve as the basis fr any mdel f effective scial relatinships; they als serve as a mdel fr effective learning as well as being fundamental t any demcratic prcess. This it is pssible t argue that the qualities and skills fr demcracy are the same as thse fr scial and learning relatinships they are symbitic. The issue fr schls, therefre, is t be less cncerned with the infrmatin abut demcracy and citizenship and mre cncerned with creating authentic persnal understanding. Authenticity is fundamental t any learning prcess which is cncerned with persnal values and beliefs. Yung peple are remarkably perceptive when presented with superficial r frmulaic appraches t matters which they regard as highly significant in their wn lives. They are quick t spt hypcrisy, duble-standards and incnsistency. S the teaching f demcracy and citizenship has t take place in the 15
cntext f genuine and valid activities which reflect the integrity f the tpics being discussed. A summary f the key elements in this discussin s far will prduce a list f criteria fr the develpment f demcratic practice in schls: 1. Demcratic practice invlves chice and participatin underpinned by rights and accuntabilities. 2. Effective learning invlves mvement frm thery t practice, frm the generic t the persnal, frm infrmatin t knwledge. 3. Engagement in demcratic activity requires a range f qualities, dispsitins, behaviurs and skills. 4. T have impact n learning abut demcracy and citizenship has t be authentic, i.e. valid, cncrete and cnsistent. These criteria can be applied t a wide range f activities in schls: The explicit develpment f the qualities and skills as part f a meta-cgnitive strategy. The intrductin f chice and negtiatin int planning f lessns fcusing n hw if nt what. Teachers using activities which demnstrate and reinfrce demcratic practices and making explicit links. Develping representative and cnsultative bdies which have authentic authrity and accuntability with genuine chices and the ability t enact decisins. 5. Building Demcratic Capacity Demcracy is fragile. Every natin reserves the right t suspend demcratic principles and prcesses in times f crisis r emergency. But demcracy is als subject t incremental ersin thrugh an increasing emphasis n techncratic expertise r administrative efficiency. It is therefre essential t ensure that demcratic principles and prcesses are deeply embedded in the scial fabric s that they cme habituated and the shared reference pint fr plitical engagement. In this respect schls have a fundamental rle t play in develping demcratic capacity the willingness t engage in and strengthen the demcratic infrastructure. The extent t which a schl is actively engaged in building demcratic capacity can be judged by its respnses t the fllwing questins: 1. T what extent d the schl s visin, values and missin statement demnstrate an explicit cmmitment t demcratic principles? 2. Hw far is there an pen flw f infrmatin t allw fr infrmed engagement? 3. Des the schl actively supprt and encurage the great freedms? 4. Des the schl demnstrate a cmmitment t the dignity and rights f individuals and minrities? 16
5. D the rganisatinal structures and prcesses f the schl mdel, as apprpriate, demcratic principles? 6. Is there a clear cmmitment t the enhancement f the cmmn gd? 7. Des the schl encurage critical analysis, debate and challenges? 8. Is there genuine participatin, sharing f authrity and building f trust? 9. Des the schl seek t share authrity? 10. Are there genuine chices available? In her significant and valuable study Learners as Leaders Patey (2004) makes a number f imprtant recmmendatins based n the initiatives in the schls she studies: Where students are learners they are empwered, s they are trusted and freed up t rake respnsibility fr their wrn learning and the learning envirnment. Once freed t take respnsibility, yung peple can develp leadership skills. Schls and clleges find that learners are at the centre f the cmmunity if the climate and culture f the rganisatin allws students t be empwered and able t cntribute t the leadership and directin f the rganisatin. Where students have a knwledge and understanding f hw they learn effectively, this enhances their leadership rle within the rganisatin. The schls and clleges, fr which case studies appear in this Think piece, create a culture and climate that prmte leadership pprtunities fr yung peple. - These chances are pen t all nt just the able, articulate r vcal. - The curriculum develpments and initiatives are integral t what the schl ffers and nt blted n. - Sme schls are appinting senir staff t prmte leadership acrss the rganisatin. evidence was seen that shwed that yunger students and primary schl children are able t develp leadership skills and take n respnsibilities, (p 25) Patey makes a direct link between learning, leadership, culture and climate in schls as well as a vital cmpnent f preparatin fr adult life. What fllws are practical examples f strategies in schls taken frm Patey (2004), The BT Schls Awareness Supplement in the Guardian (21.09.2004) and the 2020 Visin 17
Supplement f the Times Educatinal Supplement (24.01.2003). The varius examples have been integrated t prvide generic illustratins f the pssibilities fr demcratic develpment and participatin: Fcus grups students being actively invlved in reviewing the quality and nature f teaching. Members f the schl cuncil playing a full and significant rle in the selectin and appintment f teachers and senir staff. The schl cuncil being demcratically elected, given a budget t manage and specific authrity and respnsibility fr an aspect f the schl s life, e.g. develpment f an envirnmental area, respnsibility fr the design, building and peratin f a safe-quiet area in the grunds. Develping specific cnflict management, negtiatin skills and strategies t manage anger and vilence thrugh peer mediatin, e.g. changing prefects int cunsellrs. Using ICT t develp partnerships with schls in ther cuntries which are then integrated int a wide range curriculum activity t fcus n issues such as racism, xenphbia, persecutin and intlerance t develp a glbal perspective n citizenship. The cnversin f traditinal schls cuncil (tken cnsultatin and debates n unifrm, meals and discipline) int a student leadership team that parallels and engages with the schl leadership team. Mving frm spasmdic charity events t sustained relatinships invlving time, skills and engagement as well as mney. Students having respnsibility as ICT managers and mentrs fr staff and adult learners. Students qualifying as sprts caches and leading sprts teams. The student leadership team being actively invlved in schl management prcesses, e.g. the annual curriculum review, departmental perfrmance, crss-curricular issues and special prjects and initiatives. Students manage a weekly newsletter, radi statin and TV statin which act as a surce f tw-way cmmunicatin, debate. Students engage in real research prjects which are fed int the schl s plicy making prcess. Students becme researchers, engage in market surveys, run fcus grups and are thus able t cntribute an evidencebased, authritative vice t the develpment f the schl. Students are given pprtunities (and the skills) in rder t be able t negtiate with teachers: - the fcus f an aspect f the curriculum; - alternative methds f learning and teaching; - methds f presentatin and assessment; - strategies fr review and evaluatin. The schl leaders invlved in many f these prjects reprted a wide range f psitive utcmes: - imprved academic perfrmance; - high attendance levels; - imprved relatinships, less bullying; - greater cmmitment and invlvement. 18
The strategies utlined abve give lie t the idea that preparatin fr citizenship in a demcratic sciety invlves knwledge f plitical prcesses it rather requires engagement in scial relatinships. This requires an explicit schl philsphy abut the rle and status f learners in schls; the fllwing statement is taken frm the values statement f Kambrya Cllege, Berwick, Victria, Australia: Relatinships The human values we live by are as valid tday as it will be in ur students futures. Treating thers with the same rights and privileges, as we wuld wish fr urselves is timeless. What has changed and will cntinue t change is the mdern cntext that human interactin takes place in and the pressures this places n human relatinships. Technlgy has meant that we can nw cmmunicate and relate t peple in many different ways. We can frm relatinships with peple acrss the ther side f the wrld withut ever having any persnal cntact; we are a truly glbal sciety. If we lk at the develpment in cmmunicatins ver the last twenty years and then peer twenty years ahead, the wrld f science fictin may give us ur best glimpse as t what may exist. Living in a glbal sciety is bth a challenge and an adventure, which ur students need t prepare fr. The values and visin f Kambrya Cllege are reflected in many f the practical examples utlined abve. There des appear t be a very high crrelatin in all types f rganizatin between levels f cmmitment and engagement and the explicit articulatin f values which are knwn, shared and understd. There are, f curse, substantial cnstraints n schls making the mvement frm helping students understand the principles f demcratic life t being demcracies themselves. It may well be that schls will always be micrcsms f the sciety and culture that they serve. Hwever, there is an equally cmpelling argument that educatinalists shuld nt just be reactive t sciety but shuld als be actively cmmitted t changing it the idea f educatin as a key vehicle fr the achievement f scial justice. If this line f argument is accepted then there are a range f pssible develpments fr schls (that d nt invlve the libertarian perspective that wrries s many educatinalists!) Pssible strategies fr the increased demcratisatin f educatin might include: A much greater emphasis n shared leadership with a far mre equitable distributin f authrity acrss the schl, less emphasis n hierarchical structures and much mre fcus n team-based appraches. Patterns f accuntability which distribute respnsibility and have a much brader range f utcmes than many systems have tday. Greater cmmunity invlvement in schls s that gvernance is a cmmunity respnsibility and includes genuine pprtunities fr designing and develping lcal prvisin. Increasing emphasis n the persnalizatin f learning with genuine and valid chices being made available in respnse t ability, maturity and mtivatin. The use f ICT t enhance cmmunicatin, infrmatin flw, dialgue and decisin making. 19
The develpment f educatrs f a super rdinate cmmitment t demcratic principles which are then used t infrm their prfessinal practice. The develpment f curriculum mdels that fcus n educatinal utcmes rather than schl perfrmance and give high pririty t the knwledge, skills and qualities needed t be successful citizens in a mdern demcracy. The recgnitin that effective leadership is a cllective capacity, irrespective f age, gender, ability, creed r race rather than persnal status. References Apple, M.W., (1982) Educatin and Pwer ARK Editin: Lndn: Rutledge & Kegan Paul plc Bisvert, R.D., (1998) Jhn Dewey Rethinking Our Time :Albany: State University f New Yrk Press Chmsky, N. (2000) Chmsky n Miseducatin Maryland, USA: Rwman & Littlefield Publishers, INC Crick, B. (2002) Demcracy A Very Shrt Intrductin Oxfrd: OUP DfES (2004) A Natinal Cnversatin abut Persnalised Learning (Dwnlad at www.teachernet.gv.uk/pulicatins) Heifetz, R.A. (2003) Adaptive Wrk in Bentley, T. and Wilsdn, J., Eds (2003) The Adaptive State Lndn: Dems Lambert, L. (1998) Building Leadership Capacity in Schls Alexandria, VA. USA: ASCD Mnbit, G. (2003) The Age f Cnsent, Harper Lndn: Perennial Patey, R. (2004) Learners as Leaders Cventry: HTI Preskill, S., Vermilya, L. & Oter, G. (2000) Skills fr Demcracy Victria, AU: Hawker Brwnlw Educatin Surwiecki, J. (2004) The Wisdm f Crwds Lndn: Little Brwn I am very grateful t Ann Dering, Heather Jhnsn and Paul Simmns fr their helpful cmments n early drafts f this mngraph. Jhn West-Burnham is Senir Visiting Research Fellw at the Centre fr Educatinal Leadership, University f Manchester and Senir Research Adviser t the Natinal Cllege fr Schl Leadership. 20