Objectives Diabetes and Obesity in Pregnancy. Health Impact for the mother and child Bresta Miranda, MD Assistant Professor of Clinical Medicine University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine Review physiologic changes in pregnancy Review the risks associated with diabetes and obesity in pregnancy Fetal Obstetric Maternal Offspring Management of Diabetes and Obesity Preconception Throughout pregnancy Post pregnancy Diabetes and Obesity in Pregnancy Mother Miscarriages Pre eclampsia Polyhydramnios Premature Labor Offspring Congenital malformations Macrosomia Asphyxia/Death Neonatal hypoglycemia Mother Diabetes/GDM Offspring Metabolic Syndrome Obesity Gestation Delivery Long term Pregnancy: Physiologic changes Insulin sensitivity Increase in early pregnancy Rapid decrease by 40 50% during the course of pregnancy (greater in obese women) Hyperinsulinemia Lower fasting glucose Lipolysis stimulation (placental hormones vs insulin) Increased triglycerides by 260% and fasting TC by 61% Human placenta is responsive to insulin levels Increase inflammatory makers Catalano PM. BMJ 2017;360:J1 ADA Standards of Care in Diabetes 2017. D Care 2017 (40) Supp 1, S114 Diabetes in Pregnancy Pre gestational 13 21% of all pregnant diabetic Increasing prevalence Gestational 87% Increasing prevalence In Diabetes Placental glucose transport and metabolism are normal There is glucose fluxes from mother to fetus that result from increased glucose concentrations on the maternal side.
Maternal Hyperglycemia Placenta HbA1c in early pregnancy in women with type 1 Diabetes and risk of major fatal malformations Fetal Hyperglycemia Congenital anomalies (peri concepcional) Decreased early growth (0 20 weeks) Fetal hyperinsulinemia Neonatal hypoglycemia Surfactant deficiency Imature liver metabolism Fetal hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia 1. Fetal macrosomia a.birth asphyxia b.cardiomyopathy 2. Fetal hypoxia Polycythemia HbA1c <14 weeks % HbA1c <14 weeks SD #malformat/all Not known Not known 4/49 6.0 >=9.4 >=14 4/61 4.88 8.1 9.3 10 13.9 6/133 3.3 6.9 8.0 6.0 9.9 8/252 2.3 5.6 6.8 2.0 5.9 7/170 3.0 <5.6 <2.0 1/47 1.6 Relative risk All offspring of Diabetic women No. of malformation 30/709 Relative risk 3.1 Control offspring 10/735 Relative risk 1.0 Hyperinsulinemia (>20 weeks gestation Jaundice Iron Abnormalities Poor neurodevelopmental outcomes Diabetologia 2000;43(1):79 Risk during pregnancy Effects of Diabetes in Pregnancy Miscarriages Pre eclampsia/htn Polyhydramnios Pre term delivery C Sections Effect of Pregnancy in Diabetes Worsening DR Nephropathy Cardiovascular Disease DKA Higher risk of hypoglycemia Diabetes Care 23:1084 1091, 2000 Diabetes Care 24:1130 1136, 2001 Diabetes Care 18:631, 1995 Pregestational Counseling In type 1 should start in puberty Risks and importance of good control Medications (ACEI) Contraception Barrier Rhythm OCP Intrauterine devices Management of Diabetes: monitoring Glucose Targets Test A1C Glucose Urine ketones UA Creatinine TFT Eye exam Frequency Every 4 6 weeks SGM 4 a 8 per day Each visit During illness, any BG 200mg/dl Every 1 2 weeks Each trimester Initial visit Initial visit and as needed Fasting 95 1 hr <140 2 hr <120 Overnight No less than 60 ADA Standards of Care in Diabetes 2017. D Care 2017 (40) Supp 1, S114
Treatment: Insulin 0.7 2 units/kg Basal insulin 50% given as NPH (three/day)/detemir Bolus insulin 50% (Lispro, Aspart) Treatment: Insulin No data demonstrating superiority of a particular insulin or insulin analog regimen Lispro and aspart Clinically effective No evidence of teratogenesis. Human NPH insulin as part of a multiple injection regimen should be used for intermediate acting insulin Detemir is FDA approved to be used during pregnancy Treatment: Oral Hypoglycemic agents No oral hypglycemic agent has been endorsed either by ADA or ACOG to be used in pregnancy Are not approved by FDA Nutritional Caloric requirements: 30 32 kcal/kg early in pregnancy, advance to 35kcal/kg Varies 25 a 30% depending on maternal wt Severe caloric restriction (>33%) is associated with increase FFA and cetoacids. Caloric distribution 6 meals: 10 30 30; 10 10 10 Labor and Delivery Insulin Keep glucose 70 90mg/dl 15u regular insulin en 150ml de SSN a 1 3u/h In active labor the insulin resistance decrease Glucose infusion 2.5mg/kg min Q1hr FS, give insulin IV if > 120; double the glucose infusion if <60 Avoid glucose bolus GESTATIONAL DIABETES
Gestational Diabetes Any degree of glucose intolerance that appears for first time or is first recognize during pregnancy Physiopathology Pregnancy is a physiologic challenge to the insulin reserve Phenotypic and genotypic heterogeneity There is evidence of impairment in β cells Is considered a form of type 2 Some patients have HLA DR3, DR4 and antibodies against islet cells Boyd E.Metzger in Degroot Endocrinology Diabet Med 20:64-68, 2003 Risks Congenital abnormalities no Increase morbidity and peri natal mortality when treatment has been inadequate Increase risk of macrosomia and obstetric complications Increase risk of maternal hypertensive disease Risks Maternal risk of future diabetes (2.6 70%) The risk is higher in the first 5 years, stabilize after 10 years The offspring has increase risk of obesity and glucose intolerance Diabetes Care 26: Supp 1, 2003 Diabetes Care 25:1862 1868, 2002 Diabetes Care 26: Supp 1, 2003 Risk Factors Obesity Age Family or personal history of DM/GDM Ethnicity: Hispanic, Afro Americans, native Americans, south east Asians Diagnosis There are no uniform international standards for the diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus Women with risk factors for type 2 diabetes should be tested at the initial pre natal visit using standard criteria U.S. Preventive Task Force, 1996 ADA Standards of Care in Diabetes 2017. D Care 2017 (40) Supp 1, S11
National Diabetes Data Group Diagnostic Criteria Modified Carpenter Coustan 75 g glucose ADA Fasting 105 mg/dl 95 mg/dl 92 mg/dl 1 hour 190 mg/dl 180 mg/dl 180 mg/dl 2 hours 165 mg/dl 155 mg/dl 153 mg/dl 3 hours 145 mg/dl 140 mg/dl Two step: 50 g GLT 1 hr glucose 130 135 140 mg/dl ADA Standards of Care in Diabetes 2017. D Care 2017 (40) Supp 1, S114 Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes (HAPO) Objective: Evaluate the risk of adverse outcomes associated with various degrees of maternal glucose intolerance less severe that in overt diabetes mellitus 23K participants with blinded data (2000 2006) OGTT using 75g glucose between 24 and 32 weeks Un blind data if: 2 hour glucose >200 mg/dl FPG >105 mg/dl Any random glucose < 45mg/dL or > 160 mg/dl Outcomes Primary: birth weight above 90 th percentile, primary cesarean delivery, clinical neonatal hypoglycemia and fetal hyperinsulinemia Secondary: premature delivery, birth injury, need for neonatal intensive care, hyperbilirubinemia, preeclampsia NEJM 2008; 358: 1991 2002 HAPO FPG 1 <75 2 75 79 3 80 84 4 85 89 5 90 94 6 95 99 7 100 1 hour 1 105 2 106 132 3 133 155 4 156 171 5 172 193 6 194 211 7 211 NEJM 2008; 358: 1991 2002 2 hour 1 90 2 91 108 3 109 125 4 126 139 5 140 157 6 158 177 7 178 HAPO: Maternal blood sugars were associated with Association in primary outcome Birth weight above the 90 th percentile Cord blood serum C peptide above the 90 th percentile Primary cesarean delivery (weak) Clinical neonatal hypoglycemia (weak) Positive associations with secondary outcomes Premature delivery Shoulder dystocia Intensive neonatal care Hyperbilirubinemia Preeclampsia Treatment Gestational Diabetes According to the US Preventive Services Task Force Review, treating Gestational Diabetes More prenatal visits Less Pre eclampsia Less shoulder distocia Less macrosomia Insufficient evidence for maternal weight gain, birth injury, long term offspring outcomes No significant risk by treating Treatment There is very little time for intervention, most patients are diagnosed between 28 and 32 weeks with delivery around 37 39 weeks Hartling L. Ann Int Med 2013;159:123 120
Treatment One important aspect of the treatment is intensive dietary education and monitoring and weight monitoring Severity of GDM is associated with gestational weight gain and can be modified by nutritional education, dietary changes and exercise Treatment: MNT Recommendations Objectives Achieve normoglycemia Prevent ketosis Provide adequate weight gain Promote fetal well being Caloric intake 12 40 kcal/kg depending on BMI (33 40% from carbs) Target postprandial glucose Better glycemic control and lower incidence of LGA Carbohydrate counting Planned physical activity Insulin It is reasonable to give a diet trial of 2 weeks for patients not obese with FPG <95 before starting pharmacologic treatment Hyperglycemia in diabetic range ( 126mg/dl) After nutritional therapy if: Fasting > 95 105 mg/dl 1 hr post prandial >140 155 mg/dl 2 hr post prandial >120 130 mg/dl Treatment: Insulin No data demonstrating superiority of a particular insulin or insulin analog regimen in GDM Lispro and aspart Clinically effective Minimal transfer across the placenta No evidence of teratogenesis. Human NPH insulin as part of a multiple injection regimen should be used for intermediate acting insulin effect in GDM. Treatment: Oral Hypoglycemic agents No oral hypglycemic agent has been endorsed either by ADA or ACOG to be used in pregnancy Are not approved by FDA
Post Delivery Retest at 6 weeks Re evaluate every 3 years if normal Re evaluate every year if intolerant OBESITY Prevalence of obesity among adults aged 20 and over, by sex and age: United States, 2015 2016 WHO BMI Categories Percent 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 44.7 43.1 42.8 41.0 40.8 41.1 39.6 38.5 37.9 36.5 35.7 34.8 In 2010, 7.5% of women 20 39 years old had class III 20 and over obesity 20 39 40 59 60 and over Total Men Women Category BMI Underweight Less than 18.5 Normal weight 18.5 24.9 Overweight 25.0 29.9 Obesity Class I 30.0 34.9 Obesity Class II 35.0 39.9 Obesity Class III 40 or greater National Health and Nutrition Survey, 2015 2016. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs Catalano PM. BMJ 2017;360:j1 http:www.who.int/nutrition/publications/obesity Effects of Obesity in Pregnancy Miscarriages Pre eclampsia/htn Occult type 2 DM GDM OR 2.14 overweight OR 8.56 severe obese C Sections DVT Infections Effect of Obesity in offspring Congenital anomalies Nephropathy LGA Shoulder dystocia Asphyxia and death Childhood obesity Ramsey,PS. Obesity in pregnancy:complications and Maternal management in UpToDate;Post,TW(Ed)UpToDate, Watham, MA, 2017 Institute of Medicine Recommendations for weight gain during Pregnancy Initial BMI <19.8 28 40 19.28 26 25 35 26.1 29 15 25 Weight Gain (Lb) >29.1 At least 15
Maternal and Neonatal Outcomes Associated with the Amount of Gestational Wt Gain Maternal weight gain modify the relationship between maternal glucose and fetal macrosomia Obstetric Gynecology 2008;112:1015 22 Obstetric Gynecology 2008; 112: 1007 1014 Maternal Obesity Reduced insulin sensitivity Early Placental growth and gene expression Maternal tissue insulin resistance Release of placental fx that decrease insulin sensitivity Life Style Modifications during pregnancy may reduce the gestational weight gain, but have little effect on adverse pregnancy outcomes Interventions should begin before conception due to the effects on early placental development Nutrients Glucose/li pids Late pregnancy placenta Adapted from Catalano PM. BMJ 2017;360:J1 Fetal Adiposity Catalano PM. BMJ 2017;360:J1 Recommendations Pre conception management Education on adverse effects of obesity on fertility and possible complications in pregnancy Evaluate for co morbid conditions associated with obesity Diabetes HTN Weight loss and LSM before conception Pregnancy Management Appropriate referrals US surveillance Assessment of fetal wellbeing DVT antibiotic prophylaxis EFFECT OFFSPRING LONG TERM Ramsey, PS. Obesity in pregnancy: Complications and maternal management in UpToDate, Post, TW(Ed) UpToDate, Watham, MA, 2017
Metabolic programming (Epigenetics) A stimulus or an insult at a critical and sensitive period of early life permanently alters the organism s physiology and metabolism Programming may be induced by nutritional, metabolic and hormonal events Mechanisms as reduced organ mass, altered angiogenesis and hyperinsulinemia may reflect how the fetus exposed to maternal diabetes/obesity is programmed to display abnormal glucose tolerance/insulin resistance in later life High risk of diabetes and obesity in offspring of GDM Diabetes during pregnancy predisposes offspring to develop obesity and abnormal glucose tolerance later in life independently from genetic transmission In Pima nuclear families study was found that offspring born after their mother displayed diabetes had a 3.7 fold higher risk of diabetes and higher BMI than their full siblings born before their mother developed diabetes Risk of Diabetes and Impaired glucose tolerance in offspring of GDM Native Americans Fig 1. Prevalence of MS at any age among children grouped according to birth weight and maternal diabetes Boney, C. M. et al. Pediatrics 2005;115:e290 e296 Diabetes 2006; 55: 460 Copyright 2005 American Academy of Pediatrics FIG. 1. Potential role of fetal exposure to maternal diabetes in the worldwide T2D epidemic: a vicious circle The predisposing effect of intrauterine exposure to a diabetic environment has major public health implications in the presence context of the growing diabetes epidemic along with the tendency to develop diabetes at younger ages, by inducing a vicious circle Fetita, L. S. et al. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006;91:3718 3724 Copyright 2006 The Endocrine Society
EFFECT MOTHER LONG TERM Published studies show that after GDM, 35 60% of women develop type 2 diabetes within 10 years. Women with GDM may manifest short term endothelial dysfunction during late pregnancy that is manifested as transient hypertension. Long term endothelial dysfunction may be associated later in life with increased risk of chronic hypertension and CVD 90K US women with h/o GDM had 43% greater risk of CVD after adjustment for age, pre pregnancy BMI and other variables. LS factors attenuated the association Tobias DK. JAMA, Oct,16, 2017 If only FPG was used in post partum screening, 40% of Pre diabetes and 75% of diabetes would have been missed Post partum monitoring 3 % diabetes post partum 31% Pre diabetes post partum Test 1 3 days post delivery Fasting glucose 4 12 weeks 75 g OGTT 1 3 years Any recommended glycemic test Diabetes Care 32: 269 274, 2009 ADA Standards of Care in Diabetes 2017. D Care 2017 (40) Supp 1, S114 FIG. 2. Cumulative incidence of diabetes mellitus among the placebo group by history of GDM A diagnosis of GDM identifies women at high risk for diabetes. This routine clinical identification represents a unique opportunity and a responsibility for caregivers to educate the patient and health care system for the need for primary diabetes prevention Ratner, R. E. et al. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008;93:4774 4779 Copyright 2008 The Endocrine Society
Copyright 2008 The Endocrine Society FIG. 4. Cumulative incidence of diabetes in DPP by randomized treatment group Evidence from Nurses Health Study showed Healthy dietary patterns in patients with previous GDM inversely associated with type 2 DM risk Physical activity decreased the risk of type 2 DM 100 min moderate intensity per week 9% lower risk 150 min moderate intensity per week 47% lower risk Ratner, R. E. et al. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008;93:4774 4779 Wei Bao. JAMA 2014;174(7):1047 Tobias DK. Arch Int Med 2012;172(20):1566 Summary Pre existing diabetes (type 1 and type 2) are associated with significant risk to the mother and child Preconception counseling should emphasize the importance of glycemic control to reduce the risk of congenital abnormalities Strict fasting and post prandial targets are desirable if they can be achieved safely In the second and third trimester A1c of <6% have the lowest risk of LGA infants Women should be counseled in regards to the risk of development and/or progression of Diabetic Retinopathy Summary Gestational Diabetes is associated with substantial rates of maternal and perinatal complications The risk of perinatal mortality is not increased, but the risk of macrosomia is Macrosomia risk is increased across the spectrum of maternal glucose This relationship is further modified by maternal weight gain Long term adverse health outcomes are reported among infants born to mothers with gestational diabetes (impairment of glucose tolerance, obesity) Treatment of Gestational Diabetes reduces serious perinatal morbidity and may also improve the woman s health related quality of life Postpartum screening might detect diabetes preceding pregnancy and therefore enabling early treatment of hyperglycemia reducing the risk of adverse fetal outcomes in subsequent pregnancies and maternal micro vascular complications Identified women that benefit of diabetes prevention interventions Summary Obesity in pregnancy is associated with increased risk of adverse outcomes to mother and child Obese women should discuss reproductive planning well before conception with their health care providers and they should be counseled about the benefits of weight loss before attempting to conceive Prompt evaluation of co morbid conditions and modifications to routine pre natal care are necessary