This article was downloaded by: [Wageningen UR], [Mr Kirsten T. Verkooijen] On: 03 January 2012, At: 02:08 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Journal of Applied Sport Psychology Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uasp20 Athletic Identity and Well-Being among Young Talented Athletes who Live at a Dutch Elite Sport Center Kirsten T. Verkooijen a, Pepijn van Hove b & Giel Dik a a Wageningen University b HAN University of Applied Sciences Available online: 27 Dec 2011 To cite this article: Kirsten T. Verkooijen, Pepijn van Hove & Giel Dik (2012): Athletic Identity and Well-Being among Young Talented Athletes who Live at a Dutch Elite Sport Center, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 24:1, 106-113 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2011.633153 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
JOURNAL OF APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY, 24: 106 113, 2012 Copyright C Association for Applied Sport Psychology ISSN: 1041-3200 print / 1533-1571 online DOI: 10.1080/10413200.2011.633153 Athletic Identity and Well-Being among Young Talented Athletes who Live at a Dutch Elite Sport Center KIRSTEN T. VERKOOIJEN Wageningen University PEPIJN VAN HOVE HAN University of Applied Sciences GIEL DIK Wageningen University Differences in athletic identity and well-being were examined between athletes living in a Dutch elite sport center (CTO) and athletes not living in such a center (age range: 16 30). Measures included the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS; Brewer & Cornelius, 2001), the World Health Organization Quality of Life instrument (WHOQOL-BREF), and the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ; Raedeke & Smith, 2001). CTO athletes reported lower psychosocial well-being and a higher reduced sense of accomplishment, but showed no difference in athletic identity. Nor was strength of athletic identity associated with well-being as was hypothesized. INTRODUCTION In 2007, the Dutch Olympic Committee and the Dutch Sport Federation launched its first Centre for Elite Sport and Education [CTO: Centrum voor Topsport en Onderwijs]. A CTO offers athletes a setting in which training, living, and education are combined. Currently there are four registered CTOs in the Netherlands. These are located in rather isolated areas and are structured like a campus consisting of sport facilities and housing for the athletes. Although most CTO athletes go to school outside the CTO, their lecture plan is adjusted to their training schedule and transport to and from school goes collectively to save as much time for training. Although a CTO may offer advantages for the athlete s sport career in terms of logistics and training facilities, living in a place where everything is centered around sport performance might also effect the athlete s sense of identity (Brewer, 1993). Over the past several years, the concept of athletic identity has increasingly gained attention in the field of sport and exercise psychology (e.g., Anderson, Mâsse, Zhang, Coleman, & Chang, 2009; Visek, Hurst, Received 23 December 2010; accepted 14 October 2011. Address correspondence to Kirsten Verkooijen, Wageningen University, Health and Society Group, P.O. Box 8130, 6700 EW Wageningen, the Netherlands. E-mail: kirsten.verkooijen@wur.nl 106
ATHLETIC IDENTITY AMONG YOUNG ELITE ATHLETES 107 Maxwell, & Watson, 2008). The concept of athletic identity has been defined as the degree to which an individual identifies with the athlete role (Brewer et al., 1993) and this has been related to both positive and negative outcomes. In a positive sense, a strong athletic identity has been related to higher commitment in training and focus on sport goals (Anderson et al., 2009; Callero, 1985; Horton & Mack, 2000). In addition, a strong athletic identity has been linked to positive psychological outcomes that result from intensive training and successful performance, such as enhanced body image, increased self-confidence, and decreased anxiety (Callero, 1985; Horton & Mack, 2000). However, too much emphasis on the athlete role alone (and little exploration of alternative role identities) might also encourage the development of aone-dimensionalidentity,whichhas atleasttheoretically beenassociatedwithpotential negative outcomes on the athlete s well-being (e.g., Brewer, 1993; Coakley, 1992; Miller & Kerr, 2002). The potential risk of a strong and exclusively athletic identity is that self-worth and self-esteem become heavily dependent on athletic performance (Gustafsson, Hassmén, Kenttä, & Johansson, 2008). Subsequently, when performance falls short of expectations, feelings of self-worth are threatened (Brewer, 1993). In addition, it has been proposed that aone-dimensionalidentitymayleadtohigherexpectationsandgreaterpressuretosucceed, which in turn may result in higher levels of athlete burnout (Coakley, 1992; Gustafsson et al., 2008; Lemyre, Hall, & Roberts, 2008). For some athletes a strong athletic identity may not lead to emotional problems or diminished well-being, for other athletes it may pose a risk of emotional disturbance, especially when faced with poor performance or injury (Brewer, Cornelius, Stephan, & Van Raalte, 2010; Manuel, Shilt, Curl, Smith, Durant, Lester, & Sinal, 2002). Although research findings have been mixed (Black & Smith, 2007; Raedeke, 1997), the general contention seems to remain that burnout as a consequence of disappointing performance will be more prominent in athletes with a very strong and exclusive athletic identity (Brewer et al., 2010; Gustafsson, Kenttä, Hassmén, Lundqvist, & Durand-Bush, 2007). The Present Study The purpose of the present study was to explore whether athletes living in an elite sport center (CTO) hold a stronger athletic identity and when faced with weak perceived sport performance poorer well-being compared to athletes not living in such a center. For this purpose, self-report data were collected among athletes with a young talent status who were living in a Dutch CTO as well as Dutch elite athletes with a similar status who were not living in a sport residence. It was expected that CTO athletes would report stronger degrees of athletic identity compared to non-cto athletes and that this, in combination with a relatively low perceived athletic performance, would be associated with lower perceived well-being (i.e., higher burnout perceptions and lower perceived quality of life). Participants METHOD Data were collected from athletes who were living at one particular CTO (CTO athletes) and a control group of athletes who were not living at a CTO (non-cto athletes). From these 135 CTO athletes, 61 athletes (45%) completed the questionnaire (41% males). The average age was 19.2 years (SD = 2.85), ranging from 16 to 30 years. Non-CTO participants were recruited from a database of athletes who were registered at an elite sport agency from
108 K. T. VERKOOIJEN ET AL. the same region, consisting of 162 athletes between the age of 16 and 30 years old. In total, 62 athletes (38%) participated in the control group (57% males, M age = 18.6, SD = 3.2). Materials The questionnaire included different measures described below. Quality of Life The abbreviated version of the World Health Organization Quality of Life instrument (WHOQOL-BREF) was used to measure athletes well-being. The WHOQOL-BREF has shown sound (cross-cultural) validity (Skevington, Lotfy, & O Connell, 2004) and consists of 24 items referring to one s perceived quality of life in four separate domains: physical health (seven items), environment (eight items), social relationships (three items), and psychosocial health (six items). Especially this latter domain was of interest to the current research and consisted of questions such as, How satisfied are you with yourself? and How much do you enjoy life? Answers were given on a 5-point Likert scale. Athlete Burnout The athlete burnout questionnaire (ABQ) was used to measure the degree of athlete burnout. In addition, the measure includes the subscale reduced sense of accomplishment which was used in the present study as an indicator of perceived sport performance. The 15-item instrument has shown good reliability and validity (Cresswell & Eklund, 2006; Raedeke & Smith, 2001) and consists of three subscales: reduced sense of accomplishment (RA; five items), emotional/physical exhaustion (E; five items), and devaluation (D; five items). A 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (almost never) to5(almost always) wasusedinaccordancewiththe original ABQ. Athlete Identity The 7-item Athlete Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS, see Brewer & Cornelius, 2001; Visek et al., 2008) consists of three dimensions: social identity (three items that measure the strength to which one identifies with the athlete role), exclusivity (two items that measure the extent to which the athlete role is the most important one) and negative affect (two items that measure the extent to which negative affect is experienced when sport performance would be hindered). Answers were given on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree)to 7(strongly agree). Background Variables General questions involved age, gender, type of sport and hours of training per week. This latter variable was measured with an item ranging from 1 (less than 10 hr per week), 2 (10 to 15 hr per week), 3 (15 20 hr per week), to 4 (more than 20 hr per week). Procedure The study was conducted in full compliance with the Wageningen University Ethical Code of Conduct. Participants were informed about the background and aim of the study. The respondents were able to remain anonymous and they were ensured that their data would be treated confidentially. The coaches of the CTO athletes assisted in the data collection among CTO athletes. They handed out pen-and-paper versions of the questionnaire to the athletes and emphasized that participation was on a voluntary basis and that only the researchers would
ATHLETIC IDENTITY AMONG YOUNG ELITE ATHLETES 109 look at their data. Athletes who volunteered to participate returned the questionnaire to the coach when finished. The elite sport agency assisted in the data collection among the non-cto athletes. Contrary to the CTO athletes, this group received an email with a login code to fill in adigitalquestionnaireontheinternet.thiswasdoneforpracticalreasonsasitwasimpossible to find these athletes in one place like the CTO athletes. After one week the athletes received areminder,andaftertwoweeksasecondreminder. Background Variables RESULTS First, differences between CTO and non-cto on the variables age, gender, hours of training, and type of sport (team or individual) were investigated. The two groups did not differ significantly on type of sport, age, and gender. CTO athletes reported spending more hours training per week: 3.25 (SD = 0.51) versus 2.44 (SD = 0.80) for non-cto athletes on the 4-point item; F = 44.79, p < 0.01, η 2 = 0.27. Quality of Life The four domains of the WHOQOL-BREF were subjected to a multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) analysis with CTO residence (yes vs. no) as the independent variable. To control for the background variables, they were included as covariates in the analysis. Results revealed that the multivariate test was significant, F(4, 114) = 5.16, p < 0.01, η 2 = 0.15, but this effect could be completely attributed to the domain psychosocial well-being, F(1, 117) = 13.53, p < 0.01 η 2 = 0.10, showing that 10% of the variance in psychological well-being was accounted for by differences in residence. CTO athletes reported a lower psychosocial well-being (M = 3.81, SD = 0.53) than non-cto athletes (M = 4.15, SD = 0.44). CTO and non-cto athletes did not differ on the other quality of life domains (all Fs < 1, ps > 0.10). Because these domains were less relevant for the current research question, they were ignored in further analyses. Athlete Burnout The scores on the subscales of the ABQ were subjected to a MANCOVA with CTO status as the independent variable and the background variables as covariates. The multivariate test showed a significant effect of CTO residence on the three ABQ subscales, F(3, 115) = 4.46, p = 0.01, η 2 = 0.10. Analysis per subscale revealed that athletes did not score differently on exhaustion, F(1, 117) = 0.08, p = 0.80, or devaluation, F(1, 117) = 0.26, p = 0.66. However, asignificanteffectofctoresidenceonreducedsenseofaccomplishment(ra)wasfound, F(1, 117) = 6.19, p = 0.01, η 2 = 0.05, revealing a moderate effect size. Athletes living in the CTO reported a higher reduced sense of accomplishment (M = 2.19, SD = 0.57) compared to the non-cto athletes (M = 1.89, SD = 0.61). Athletic Identity Differences between CTO and non-cto athletes on the three subscales of the AIMS were investigated using a MANCOVA, with the background variables as covariates. The multivariate test did not show a significant effect, F(1, 115) = 1.30, p = 0.28, η 2 = 0.03. The tests of the between-subject effects were F(1, 117) = 2.42, p = 0.12, η 2 = 0.02 for social identity, F(1, 117) = 2.76, p = 0.09, η 2 = 0.02 for negative affect and F(1, 117) = 3.85, p = 0.05,
110 K. T. VERKOOIJEN ET AL. η 2 = 0.03 for exclusivity. This shows that there was no difference in athletic identity between the two groups. Mean scores on this scale were 5.92 (SD = 1.19) for the CTO, and 5.41 (SD = 1.67) for the non-cto athletes. As described, an exclusive athlete identity was expected to have a negative effect on psychosocial well-being, which should be particularly true if one s performance falls short of expectation. Therefore, further analysis was performed using one of the subscales from the ABQ: reduced sense of accomplishment. As the expectation describes an interaction effect between athlete identity exclusivity and reduced sense of accomplishment on psychosocial well-being, an interaction term was calculated (the centered scores of AIMS exclusivity RA). Together with the main scores of the AIMS exclusivity and RA it was entered as a predictor into a linear regression analysis, with the scores on the psychosocial domain from the WHOQOL-BREF as the dependent variable. This analysis showed a strong effect of RA, β = 0.50, t = 6.34, p < 0.00, but no effects of AIMS exclusivity or the interaction term (β = 0.13, t = 1.35, p = 0.18 for the AIMS exclusivity predictor and β = 0.13, t = 1.34, p = 0.18 for the interaction term). In addition, as Table 1 shows, AIMS exclusivity scores were also not related to the other ABQ subscales. DISCUSSION This study examined differences in athletic identity and self-reported well-being among young elite athletes who were living in a sport residence compared to young elite athletes who were not living in such a residence. It was hypothesized that the first group would show higher degrees of athletic identity and that this, combined with feelings of poor achievement, would go together with lower perceived well-being. CTO athletes did not score higher on the three dimensions of athletic identity than non-cto athletes. Hence, the hypothesis that a strong and narrow focus on sport-related issues within the CTO setting would lead to stronger identification with the athlete role among its residents compared to non-residents was not confirmed by our data. Moreover and contrary to our hypothesis no association was found between athletic identity and measures of subjective well-being. In line with other researchers (Black & Smith, 2007; Raedeke, 1997), we found no support for the contention that a strong athletic identity is associated with higher burnout perceptions. Remarkably, however, CTO athletes reported lower psychosocial well-being and greater reduced sense of accomplishment than athletes who did not live in a sport institute. These two indicators of mental well-being were inversely related, such that higher scores on reduced sense of accomplishment went together with lower scores on psychosocial well-being. This finding may not be a surprise given that athletes tend to base their self-worth greatly on perceived sport performance (Brewer et al., 1993). What remains is the question why CTO athletes experienced higher degrees of reduced sense of accomplishment compared to athletes who did not live in a CTO. Either these athletes truly performed less than they were capable of or their expectations of what they should be capable of were set too high. Living in a setting designated to enhance elite sport performance could indeed have stimulated athletes to set very high goals for themselves. Yet, moving to such aplacemayhaverequiredsomeadaptationduringwhichtheperformanceofathletesmaynot have increased. This mismatch between increased expectations and unchanged performance might explain the reduced sense of accomplishment. In addition, living solely among other elite athletes, CTO athletes may have had fewer opportunities for downward comparisons with less successful athletes than the non-cto athletes had. A peer motivational climate that
Table 1 Bivariate correlations between study variables and descriptive statistics for CTO athletes and non-cto athletes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1WHOQOL-BREVtotal 2Physical.80 3Psychosocial.76.47 4 Social relations.68.41.46 5Environment.83.52.44.48 6 ABQ total.54.44.50.31.38 7Reducedsenseofaccomplishment.45.29.49.27.32.83 8 Exhaustion.50.44.43.29.32.77.45 9Devaluation.31.29.25.15.22.76.55.28 10 AIMS total.02.05.00.04.03.09.11.15.07 11 Social identity.02.01.01.02.01.01.07.10.07.94 12 Exclusivity.01.03.02.12.02.02.08.16.07.91.78 13 Negative affectivity.06.09.02.02.08.09.09.17.06.89.77.75 CTO athletes (n = 61) M 3.77 3.73 3.81 3.78 3.76 2.08 2.19 2.37 1.68 5.75 5.75 5.92 5.59 SD 0.43 0.58 0.53 0.71 0.58 0.43 0.57 0.73 0.56 1.04 1.12 1.19 1.29 Non-CTO athletes (n = 62) M 3.92 3.76 4.15 3.90 3.85 1.95 1.89 2.13 1.82 5.32 5.31 5.42 5.25 SD 0.42 0.53 0.44 0.65 0.53 0.57 0.61 0.73 0.67 1.48 1.51 1.65 1.59 p values group differences (ANCOVA).217.645 <.001.684.833.384.014.779.614.066.112.052.099 p <.05 111
112 K. T. VERKOOIJEN ET AL. reinforces social comparison has been theoretically linked to poorer psychological outcomes (Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1999; Smith, Gustafsson, & Hassmén, 2010). Some limitations of this study need to be taken into account. First of all, the cross-sectional study design does not allow interpretation of the findings in terms of causality. Previous research has found that athletes who are confronted with (chronic) disappointing performance tend to reduce their athletic identity to maintain a positive self-image (Brewer et al., 2010; Brewer, Selby, Linder, & Petitpas, 1999; Grove, Fish, & Eklund, 2004). In line with Black and Smith (2007), we should note therefore that self-protective changes in athletic identity may obscure the relationship between athletic identity and burnout. In addition, the validity of the study may have suffered from selection- and non-response bias. Although it was emphasized that participation was voluntary, CTO athletes may have felt somewhat obliged to participate in the study because it was their coach who invited them. Instead, participation among the non-cto athletes occurred on a more truly voluntary basis as they may have felt more free to decide whether or not to accept the invitation by e-mail. Therefore, the non-cto athletes who decided to participate might have been more motivated and possibly more positive towards their athlete role and life in general compared to non-participating athletes. On the other hand, non-cto athletes may have felt more anonymous filling out the questionnaire behind their computer, whereas CTO-athletes might have felt more hesitation in reporting negative feelings in the presence of their coach and peers. Given the limitations of the present study, it is recommended that further research will be done to find out if and why CTO athletes experience a reduced sense of accomplishment and poorer psychosocial well-being. The use of longitudinal study designs is recommended to tap into the causal relationship between type of residence and subjective well-being. However, qualitative research may also prove useful in obtaining a deeper understanding of the issue by providing more in-depth information on the experiences and opinions of athletes regarding their living environment. REFERENCES Anderson, C. B., Mâsse, L. C., Zhang, H., Coleman, K. J., & Chang, S. (2009). Contribution of athletic identity to child and adolescent physical activity. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 37, 220 226. Black, J. M., & Smith, A. L. (2007). An examination of Coakley s perspective on identity, control, and burnout among adolescent athletes. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 38, 417 436. Brewer, B. W. (1993). Self-identity and specific vulnerability to depressed mood. Journal of Personality, 61, 343 364. Brewer, B. W., & Cornelius, A. E. (2001). Norms and factorial invariance of the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale. Academic Athletic Journal, 15, 103 113. Brewer, B. W., Cornelius, A. E., Stephan, Y., & Van Raalte, J. L. (2010). Self-protective changes in athletic identity following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11, 1 5. Brewer, B. W., Van Raalte, J. L., & Linder, D. E. (1993). Athletic identity: Hercules muscles or Achilles heel? International Journal of Sport Psychology, 24, 237 54. Brewer, B. W., Selby, C. L., Linder, D. E. & Petitpas, A. J. (1999). Distancing oneself from a poor season: divestment of athletic identity. Journal of Personal and Interpersonal Loss, 4, 149 162. Callero, P. L. (1985). Role-identity salience. Social Psychology Quarterly, 48, 203 215. Coakley, J. (1992). Burnout among adolescent athletes: a personal failure or social problem? Sociology of Sport Journal, 9, 271 285. Cresswell, S. L., & Eklund, R. C. (2006). The convergent and discriminant validity of burnout measures in sport: A multi-trait/multi-method analysis. Journal of Sports Sciences, 24, 209 220.
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