Value Proposition of Halal Restaurants for Non-Muslim Consumers: An Exploratory Study on Malaysian Consumers Perception

Value Proposition of Halal Restaurants for Non-Muslim Consumers: An Exploratory Study on Malaysian Consumers Perception Ming Zhe Hoh Halal Ecosystem Multidisciplinary Research Platform, Monash University Malaysia Campus Email: mzhoh1@student.monash.edu M Yunus Ali 1 Associate Professor, Department of Marketing, Monash University Malaysia Campus, Jalan Logoon Selatan, 46150 Bandar Sunway, Selangor Darul Ehsah, Malaysia. Email: Yunus.ali@monash.edu Abstract Purpose: Many non-muslim consumers are regular users of Halal branded products and services but our understanding of their value expectations in such Halal consumption is not much documented to help managers position their brands effectively. Main aim of this study is to explore non-muslim consumers perception of halal restaurants. Design/methodology/approach: The exploratory study conducted semi-structured interviews by a series of email with non-muslim consumers to understand their expectations of and perception towards halal restaurants. Findings: The research reveals new insights on non-muslim consumers attitudes and behaviors towards halal restaurants that will contribute to theorize their purchase intention. It revealed several unique insights to guide future research. Research limitations/implications: This research has implications for academia and halal restaurant businesses. Halal businesses could draw from the information to gain better understanding of their non-muslim customer segment so that they can add value, improve their positioning and actively expand their customer base. Originality/value: The research is unique as it is the first to use qualitative research to provide additional depth to an uncommon perspective in understanding the halal offerings and their attractiveness to non-muslim consumers. This is also the first research that studied non-muslim consumer perspectives in regards to halal restaurants instead of halal food in general. Key Words: Non-Muslim consumer perception on Halal, Halal Restaurant, Value proposition of Halal services for non- Muslim, Halal Restaurant in Malaysia Introduction Malaysia is recognized as a global halal hub for its ground breaking infrastructural development on halal production, trading, certification, and research & development facilities. Malaysia is also a leading global player in halal food industry, and played a leadership role in the halal food benchmarking by the United Nation's Codex Alimentarius Commission (ALINORM 1995) for halal food labelling. Malaysia has a rich and diverse multicultural population with various religious beliefs. Islam is the official religion of Malaysia and the majority of the population is of the Muslim faith. The notion of halal is important for all products and services consumed in the daily lives of Muslims. This is especially true of food which is a necessary part of life. Naturally, majority of studies on halal products focus mainly on Muslim consumers. A few recent works have reported that non-muslim consumers would appreciate halal products globally (Alserhan, 2010; Coolen-Maturi, 2013; Stephenson, 2014). Yet, very little research has directly 1 Corresponding Author Citation details: Hoh, M.Z. & Ali, M.Y., (2014), Value Proposition of Halal Restaurants for Non-Muslim Consumers: An Exploratory Study on Malaysian Consumers Perception, Proceedings of the 5 th Global Islamic Marketing Conference, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 22 24 April 2014, pp. 117 125. 117

investigated non-muslim consumers perception of halal products and services. Malaysia would be a good place to initiate such a research for the proliferation of halal food and other services with unique coexistence of Muslims and non-muslims. This research aims to investigate any special need for new value propositions of halal restaurants for non-muslims in Malaysia. The key research questions to be addressed in this exploratory study are: 1. What are the attitudes, behaviours and perceptions of non-muslim consumers towards halal food and restaurants? 2. Do non-muslim consumers perceive halal restaurants to deliver the values sought? 3. What are the factors that rationalize these perceptions? Existing literature relevant to the matter is reviewed critically to understand the current level research done so far and to determine future directions for this research. This is followed by descriptions of the methods used in this study. The findings from the in-depth interviews are then analyzed and discussed before concluding with recommendations based on what has been discovered. Literature Review Religion as an element of culture is recognised to have influence on consumer attitudes and behaviours (Delener, 1994). In particular, religion affects food purchasing habits and eating behaviours (Mennel, Murcott, and van Ootterloo, 1992) and was found to be one of the most influential factors that shape food choice in many societies (Musaiger, 1993; Dindyal, 2003; Bonne, Vermeir, Florence and Verbeke, 2007; Norman, 2012). Halal food is one of the most well-known faith-based food for followers of Islam. Some scholars used Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to investigate Muslim consumers consumption in two European countries and report that self-identity and dietary acculturation are important determinants of halal meat consumption for Muslim minority consumers in France (Bonne et. al, 2007) and Belgium (Bonne, Vermeir and Verbeke, 2009). Three similar studies in Muslim majority countries used Theory of Reasoned Action or Theory of Planned Behavior and revealed that subjective norms were highly significant determinant of halal consumption that was not found relevant in Muslim minority countries (Mukhtar and Butt, 2012; Suddin, Tanakinjal and Amin, 2009; Alam and Sayuti, 2011). Mukhtar and Butt (2012) also found that religiosity influences intention to choose halal products in Pakistan. However, none of these studies invesigated non-muslim consumers' purchase intention of halal food. Supply side: Food safety and integrity is increasingly becoming important on a global scale as a result of growing public awareness about health, hygiene and even ethics. Muslim consumers are additionally cautious in food safety and integrity for the religious requirement of halal food consumption. Talib, Zailani and Zainuddin (2010) conceptualized possible dimensions to achieve such halal food safety and integrity for a locally developed halal standard that is uniform in Malaysia. Zailani, Arrifin, Wahid, Othman and Fernando s (2010) work even narrowed more specifically to focus on halal traceability and tracking systems to strengthen halal food safety and integrity in Malaysia's food industry. Other religions in most multicultural country markets such as Malaysia constitute a significant size of the market space. However, studies on halal food are usually focused on Muslim consumers, and non-muslim consumers perceptions are rarely examined. Considering the huge growth potential of Halal food among non- Muslims globally, Yuhanis and Chok (2012) emphasized the need for more research to understand non-muslim consumers in halal marketplaces. This was supported by Farooq (2013) in the context of Islamic tourism. Halal offerings to non-muslims are economically practical and socio-culturally important, especially in multicultural country markets such as Malaysia. Due to the varying religious cultural values and its effect on consumer behaviour and attitudes, people outside of a religion are unlikely to have the same behaviours and attitudes towards food that is prepared in accordance to that particular religion s standards (Silver, 2011). Thus, halal food would not necessarily offer the same value proposition to non-muslims as it does to Muslims though some scholars (e.g., Alserhan, 2010; Golnaz et al., 2010; Jusoh et al., 2013) see its potential universal appeal. Recent studies also report that halal services such as insurance (Coolen-Maturi, 2013) and tourism &hospitality (Asif, 2011 cited in Stephenson, 2014) offer some 118

value to non-muslim consumers. This may indicate that non-muslim consumers see halal products and services with different lenses and find positive value in it, which is clearly not known yet. Halal foodservice as a point of convergence: The earlier discussion on hospitality and food industry indicates that halal restaurants would be capable of offering value to non-muslims. Furthermore, Gayatri, Hume and Mort (2011) noted that Islamic religious-culture have impacts on Muslim consumers' interpretations and expectations of service quality. Hence, foodservice would be more comprehensive in studying value propositions of halal offerings and quality standards. Thus far only three studies reported value expectations of halal foods and restaurant services. Marzuki, Hall and Ballantine (2012) investigated Muslim and non-muslim restaurant managers attitude towards halal certification in Malaysia and offered potential insights on the value of halal restaurants. They found that non- Muslim restaurant managers have as much respect for the importance of halal food as their Muslim counterparts where halal certification and status was considered being valued by customers. However, the study only gauges the perceived sensitivity of restaurant managers towards religious needs of their Muslim consumers. Thus, it only considers the issue from a non-muslim seller s viewpoint rather than actually engaging the non-muslim consumers to obtain their thoughts on the matter. Non-Muslim consumer perspectives: Golnaz et al. (2010) and Jusoh et al. (2013) studied non-muslim consumers purchase intention of halal-labelled food products and found that food safety and health, animal welfare, fair trade, environmental sustainability and religious beliefs are the factors that drive such purchase intentions. Similarly, Yuhanis and Chok (2012) found that halal awareness and halal certification positively influenced non-muslim consumers purchase intention of halal food. These three quantitative researches validated the TPB model in understanding non-muslim consumers intention to adopt halal branded food products. However, it should be noted that quantitative research misses the opportunity for further insight from their respondents (Gill, Stewart, Treasure and Chadwick, 2008). The use of predetermined dimensions and a survey format relied on assumptions about non-muslims understanding and interpretations of halal principles. It is problematic as it blindly equates the global trend of Muslim consumers increasing social awareness and responsibility to Islamic religious principles on non-muslim consumers and the findings may lack predictive validity (Woodside, 2012). Qualitative research, on the other hand, explores the reality without being limited to any prior assumption and rigid variables. Moreover, it can provide a more holistic focus, and is therefore more suitable for exploratory research such as understanding non-muslim consumers perception on halal food. Therefore, findings of these studies need further validation using a qualitative lens to understand non-muslim consumers value expectations in Halal Restaurant services. Methodology: Research Approach: This study aims to understand non-muslim consumers perspective of halal products and services, which is relatively unexplored and would benefit from more uninhibited approaches of deriving information. As discussed earlier, quantitative approach is not suitable due to its limitations. This research would therefore adopt a qualitative research approach where direct contact and rich primary information would be more accurate through in-depth interviews. Method of data collection: This study used qualitative research methods as they have been acknowledged as being able to obtain deeper, more detailed insights from participants than quantitative research (Gill et al., 2008). Depth interviews were carried out following a semi-structured format, utilizing standardized open-ended questions to obtain understanding of interviewees insights (Zikmund, Ward, Lowe and Winzar, 2007, p.79). This enabled respondents a reasonable amount of freedom in discussion without too much deviation from focal points (Gill et al., 2008). Moreover, the format grants a good balance of flexibility in discussion and comparability between respondents (Gill et al., 2008). The interviews were conducted online via email. The time and space asynchronous nature of this method was chosen because it was time-efficient and it allowed the interviewer to compare data from ongoing interviews so that possible patterns could be identified and additional questions of relevance could be developed. While face-to- 119

face interviews are usually preferred when spontaneity is valued (Joinson, (2001) that computer mediated discussions were proven to have higher levels of spontaneity self-disclosure. The interviewees were able to recover from fatigue and also to turn the questions over in their minds. Meho (2006, p.1291) also noted that e- mail interviews provided more reflectively dense answers with better focus on the research questions. Moreover, online interviews reduce interviewees hesitation of giving socially undesirable answers to more sensitive questions, as well as reduce the possibility of being influenced by the interviewer s presence and/or body language to provide certain types of answers (Leeuw, 2008; Opdenakker, 2006). Email interviews ensure that data is transcribed instantly as it happens (Opdenakker, 2006) facilitate verbatim recording without disrupting the flow of the interview. Sampling: In this study, convenience sampling is used where subjects are selected because of their convenient accessibility and willingness to participate and engage in a time consuming interview for richer qualitative responses through probing for possible explanations (Ferber, 1977). It also provides a time and cost effective method of acquiring a balanced sample that could ensure the widest possible range of consumer demography of non-muslim consumers. A sample of 18 non-muslim consumers from the Klang Valley region was drawn. The sample was selected to include as many demographic factor permutations as possible for age group, gender, ethnicity and religion. The sample consisted of 8 females and 10 males. In age group, five respondents were aged 18-22, seven were aged 23-30; and two each in 31-40, 41-50, and above 50 age groups. There were a total of 6 Buddhists, 4 Hindus, 4 Christians, 2 Catholics and 2 Atheists. Ten of the respondents were Chinese, 5 Indian, 1 Bidayuh, 1 Chinese-Indian and 1 Eurasian. Research Findings Consumption experience of Halal restaurants: All the respondents interviewed for this study have eaten at halal restaurants before their participation. While they have a general understanding of halal food as food permissible for Muslims, some of them indicated a deeper understanding in the halal slaughtering and food preparation processes. Even so, the general attitude towards halal food is best summarized by a 21year old male, Chinese-Indian, Atheist respondent: Neutral, neither positive nor negative. Despite their neutral attitude towards halal food, the majority of the respondents have positive attitudes towards its availability as expressed by respondents: I think it s good that freedom of religion can be practiced in (the) daily routine of everyday life such as through food. (23 year old male, Chinese, Buddhist) It is also a religious act for Muslims, so I respect it as it is part of their religion (23 year old Female, Indian, Hindu) (I) respect it as part of the religious practice of Muslims. (44year old Male, Chinese, Catholic) Three other respondents attitude towards halal food was slightly more positive. They compared some aspects of halal food with their own individual religious beliefs as rationale for such view as quoted below: Personally my religion also disapproves of sedatives and drugs even for animals, so I agree with that. (23year old male, Chinese, Buddhist) I do not consume pork (because of religious beliefs and family upbringing) so I prefer eating at outlets that do not serve pork and incidentally most restaurants that do not serve pork all happen to be Halal. (23year old male, Indian, Hindu) It is interesting to note that four respondents equated halal food to be more strongly associated with traditional Malay cuisine but it is acknowledged that such a categorization is not exclusive: While other types of cuisine can be made in a halal way I usually associate the word halal food to food of Malay culture. (25year old male, Chinese, Buddhist) The frequency of respondents eating out at halal restaurants varied from seldom to almost every day. Reasons for eating frequently at halal restaurants were popularly attributed to their ubiquity in the respondent s location or personal preference for a certain type of cuisine. While a few respondents had generally favourable experiences 120

and attitudes towards halal restaurants, the popular opinion can be typified by the response given by a 22year old male, Chinese, Christian respondent: it (halal)doesn t play (any) sort of role in my decision making. This was supported by a 44year old male, Chinese, Catholic: Generally (halal restaurants are) no different from other restaurants. A 23year old female, Indian, Hindu respondent similarly expressed: Since I do not have any problem with halal food I simply walk into any restaurant I want to. If I do need a reason to specifically eat in a halal restaurant alone it would be because someone I am with is Muslim Halal logo: It is noted that none of the respondents actively look for the halal logo when they are looking for a restaurant to dine at. Even if they were to discover the logo at the restaurant they were eating at, it is unanimously agreed that it would not affect them either positively or negatively. Nevertheless, six respondents have specifically mentioned preference for halal restaurant when dining out with Muslim friends. One such example can be seen from a 23year old male, Indian, Christian s response: To me it s just the preparation of the meal that enables Muslims to have the same meal. It justifies equality. We wouldn t want to sit at a table with our Muslim friends and they can t eat the same meal as us just because it s not halal certified. Food standards: The respondents interpretation of food standards varied in three general groups. Different respondents have taken it to mean personal criterion; legal regulations; and lifestyle options. Even though halal could qualify as a food standard by all of these three definitions, only three respondents indicated halal as a food standard: I think it is important to give Muslims the confidence in knowing that the food they consume adheres to their faith/beliefs. (38year old female, Indian, Hindu) Most other respondents did not associate halal standards with food standards. Comment like: I consider halal food more of religious requirement than a food standard. (44year old male, Chinese, Catholic) was supported by I think it s more of a convenience for Muslims. (55year old Female, Chinese, Buddhist) Some of the reasons given by the respondents are as follows: Halal (only ensures) that the food process complies with the halal principles (22year old female, Chinese, Buddhist) These address different things, Halal is for religion, HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points) is about processes (41year old Male, Chinese, Christian) Out of the eighteen respondents, only two thought that halal standard would be superior to generic food standards. They believed that halal standards of food preparation were more ethical and safer for consumption compared to generic standards, but one of them thought that this would be true for all religion-based standards. Perceptions towards halal: Eight respondents viewed halal food either as kindness to animal, ethical, healthy and/or clean. While four respondents thought halal food as ethical, two of them also had an image of kindness to animals. Another four thought of halal food either as healthy or clean. The remaining nine did not find halal food to have any such impression for them, seeing it as only religious requirement or tradition. Given two restaurants that were exactly the same in with the exception of one being halal and the other being non-halal, only two of the respondents would choose halal over non-halal restaurants, both of them citing ethical aspect as the reason but again one of them specified that his preference was open to any religion. Benefits sought: This research specifically investigated the benefit generally sought by non-muslim consumers in a restaurant. An analysis of what benefits respondents generally seek when choosing a restaurant has found that certain features of a restaurant to be more influential than others. This was determined through respondents 121

emphasis on the aspect and the importance they placed on it, as well as its frequency among all the responses. Cleanliness was the most influential factor almost all respondents indicated. Taste and price were tied for second followed by healthy food, service quality, dining atmosphere and convenience as important to the majority of respondents. Two respondents also emphasized on food source and family-friendliness as important factors in their choice of restaurants. Value delivery: Having identified the values sought by the respondents, the research also made an attempt to determine whether halal restaurants satisfy these criteria. The general opinion of the respondents was that a halal restaurant not necessarily delivers all the values they desire. Even though some respondents believe that halal restaurants would be obliged to do so, but they expressed their reservation on restaurant staff members dedication in delivering that. This can be seen in the 55 year old female, Chinese, Buddhist respondent s comment like: I think the requirements exist but I can t be sure that the individual restaurateurs will follow it Some respondents view halal as a purely religious dimension and do not see it as capable of affecting the nonreligious values they demand. Such a sentiment can be seen in the following two responses: My idea of halal food again [ ] (is) one of religious needs so I do not really see halal as delivering the values I have mentioned (25year old Male, Chinese, Buddhist) It [value delivery] has nothing to do with halal and non-halal. It is up to the individual restaurant and staff (54year old male, Indian, Hindu) The same is found true for service quality in particular: Service quality is still dependent on the employees of the restaurant, whether they have commitment to serve their customers. (23year old Male, Indian, Christian) I think the most important thing is the individual person s attitude. (55year old female, Chinese, Buddhist) However, it is worth mentioning that one respondent indicated appreciation of halal restaurants because of the family-friendliness he perceived: I do appreciate that nobody will get drunk and cause trouble (23year old Male, Chinese, Buddhist) Finally, no correlation can be found between any particular type of attitude, behavior or level of awareness in relation to age, gender, ethnicity, or religion of the respondents. Discussion The findings are generally in line with previous research (Golnaz et al., 2010; Jusoh et al., 2013) that animal welfare, sustainability, food safety and health are factors that would drive purchase intention of halal food by non-muslim consumers. A point of difference is that the respondents are more concerned with fair prices than fair trade. This could be because thrift is encouraged as an Asian value in Malaysia (Milner, 2004). Religious beliefs have also been found to positively affect purchase intention and attitude when such beliefs overlap with certain Muslim beliefs. One respondent s abstinence of alcohol is also of note as he opined that this characteristic of halal restaurants made them more family friendly. Nevertheless, the findings seem to disprove any theorizations that halal certification and logos are capable of appealing to non-muslims (Yuhanis and Chok, 2012) as none of the respondents actively searched for these signifiers and all respondents unanimously agreed that such signifiers would have no impact on them either positively or negatively. Furthermore, the findings seem to challenge previous research that found value and customer satisfaction in Islamic hospitality (Asif, 2011 cited in Stephenson, 2014) and halal food products (Jusoh et al., 2013). In the case of Islamic hospitality, the work focused on the perspective of foreign tourists in Dubai. This difference in contexts could explain the differences in the findings. The research design also provides a more open platform for respondents to voice their concerns. It is not that they rejected these market offerings, but they did not appear to perceive these to be superior or more relevant to their needs when compared to non-halal restaurants. Even though it is noted that the respondents did not perceive halal restaurants more negatively as compared to non-halal restaurants, halal restaurants still fail to create competitive advantage over their non-halal counterparts. 122

Findings revealed that respondents recognized certain avenues which have the potential to appeal to them such as: cleanliness, service quality, price, atmosphere, health and family-friendliness. These have been highlighted as relevant to halal principles and processes (Golnaz et al., 2010; Jusoh et al., 2013). However, the open ended nature of this research allowed the participants to express what they considered important factors through a filter that took the individual restaurant staff, policies, not to mention government regulations and enforcement initiatives into account. The participants acknowledged that different individuals would accept and uphold their commitments differently, resulting in varying market offerings in terms of execution and adherence to government set standards. This could be attributed to general cynicism of Malaysians towards authorities and institutions, which is even more prominent in urban areas such as where the research was carried out. The findings also reflect the binarization of Islam-West of Lee s (2011, p.107) observation about the way such binaries influence how certain practices are perceived. Halal standards are thought of as purely religious requirements and therefore incomparable with Western science-based food standards. Furthermore, a similar binarization takes place in the majority of respondents perception regarding halal food preparation and service. They perceive it as a primarily Muslim process that benefits Muslim. Hence, the general opinion was formed that it does not concern them and the disassociation that occurs would result in them being unable to relate to the benefits that might be available. Thus, they do not consider it relevant to their personal consumption. This is compatible with previous observations (Golnaz et al., 2010) that many non-muslims still perceived halal labeled food products from the perspective of religion and do not understand the underlying principles and advantages behind it. Theory of Planned Behaviour The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) has been posited to be useful in understanding how halal food products can create a value proposition for non-muslims (Golnaz et al., 2010; Jusoh et al., 2013). Thus, it would be put forward that it is also suitable for understanding how halal foodservice can create a value proposition for non-muslims. Amongst the three independent determinants of consumer behavior in TPB, this study focused mainly on attitude. The perceived behavioral control is not deemed to be a problem as halal restaurants are ubiquitous in Malaysia and is a generally affordable. Jusoh et al. (2013) interpreted the subjective norm in the context of having Muslim majority friends. However, this research would be inclined to follow the interpretation used by Golnaz et al. (2010) where the social pressure results from coexisting in a Muslim majority society. In Malaysia, the social pressure of dining at a halal restaurant is strong when in Muslim company due to the culture of religious pluralism in Malaysia that strongly encourages respecting different religions. Overall the social pressure of dining at a halal restaurant when in Muslim company is positive; one of the respondents even considered this a matter of equality. There are no socially negative feelings found for dining in halal restaurants amongst the respondents. Hence, neither subjective norms nor perceived behavioral control are an issue for non-muslim consumers intention of dining in halal restaurants. While it was found that the attitudes of the respondents towards halal restaurants were neutral, their general attitude towards the provision of suitable eating establishments for their Muslim counterparts is favorable. As mentioned earlier, non-muslims have the potential to find value in halal foodservice if their attitude towards its unique values are developed through creating awareness and understanding of elements that are consistent with their personal religious beliefs. Thus, this would influence their attitudes positively and encourage patronage of halal restaurants. Conclusion In conclusion, the value propositions for halal restaurants that are relevant to non-muslims are indeed integral parts of halal principles: nutritional value, health, food safety, animal welfare, sustainability, cleanliness and price. However, it is found that the majority of non-muslim respondents of this study in Malaysia were unable to relate these to halal restaurants. Therefore, it can be seen that the halal restaurants are primarily facing the marketing problem on brand building. Halal restaurants need to reconsider how to position themselves in customers 123

perceptions to be just as relevant to non-muslims and avoid the mistake of alienating a significant potential market. Furthermore, to the best of the authors knowledge, price has never been identified as a dimension for halal value propositions. The respondents demand for fair prices matches the halal principles of reasonable prices especially for something like food that is a daily necessity. Thus, it is recommended that value propositions for non-muslims can be better made for halal restaurants through raising awareness and communicating the components of halal principles that would be relevant. Moreover, a substantial degree of dismissal of the halal restaurants value propositions is due to the distrust towards the commitment of individual restaurant and restaurant staff in upholding the standards of the halal ideal. Hence, the halal restaurant industry and the Malaysian government needs to work together to overcome this problem. One possible solution would be through strict training programs for restaurant management and service staff. Frequent and random audits of the restaurant and its staff might also help restore Malaysian confidence in halal standards and their long-term implementation. Limitations The research is faced with certain limitations. Firstly, it is acknowledged that the small sample size and use of convenience sampling is not sufficient to be truly representative of the Malaysia s vastly diverse population. There are also more to Malaysia s ethnic diversity than just those included. Moreover, in order to obtain a sample towards inclusion, equality and balance, representative proportions of the population had to be sacrificed. Any future research may, however, benefit from the findings to design a research model for further empirical validation. Reference List Alam, S. S. & Sayuti, N. M. 2011, Applying the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) in halal food purchasing, International Journal of Commerce and Management, vol. 21, no. 1, pp.8-20 Alserhan, B. A. 2010, Islamic branding: A conceptualization of related terms, Journal of Brand Management, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 34-49 Bonne, K., Vermeir, I., Florence, B. & Verbeke, W. 2007, Determinants Of halal meat consumption in France. British Food Journal, vol. 109, no. 5, pp.367-386 Bonne, K., Vermeir, I. & Verbeke, W. 2009, Impact of religion on halal meat consumption decision making in Belgium, Journal of International Food and Agribusiness Marketing, vol. 21, no. 1, pp.5-26 Calvert, P. J. 2001, International variations in measuring customer expectations, Library Trends, vol. 49, no. 4, pp.732-758 Coolen-Maturi, T. 2013, Islamic insurance (takaful): Demand and supply in the UK, International Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Finance and Management, vol. 6, no. 2, pp.87-104 Delener, N. 1994, Religious contrasts in consumer decision behaviour patterns: Their dimensions and marketing implications, European Journal of Marketing, vol. 28, no. 5, pp. 36-53 Dindyal, S. 2003, How personal factors, including culture and ethnicity, affect the choices and selection of food we make, Internet Journal of Third World Medicine, vol. 1, no. 2, pp.27-33 Ellis, J. H. M., Williams, D. R. & Zuo, Y. 2003, Cross-cultural influences in Chinese retailing: A comparative study of local and international supermarket in China, Asian Business Management, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 205-221. Farooq, H. 2013, Conceptualizing Islamic spiritual tourism: A marketing perspective, in 4 th Global Islamic Marketing Conference, 29-30 May, Istanbul, pp. 479-486 Ferber, R. 1977, Research By convenience, Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 4, no. 1. pp. 57-58 Gayatri, G., Hume, M. & Mort, G. S. 2011, The role of Islamic culture in service quality research, Asian Journal on Quality, vol. 12, no. 1, pp.35-53 Gill, P., Stewart, K., Treasure, E. & Chadwick, B. 2008, 'Methods of data collection in qualitative research: Interviews and focus groups, British Dental Journal, vol. 204, no. 6, pp. 291-295 Golnaz, R., Zainalabidin, M., Mad Nasir, S. & Chiew, E. F. C. 2010, Non-Muslims' awareness of Halal principles and related food products in Malaysia, International Food Research Journal, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 667-674 Joinson, A.N. 2001, Self-disclosure in computer-mediated communication: The role of self-awareness and visual anonymity, European Journal of Social Psychology, vol.31, no.1, pp. 177-192. 124

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