Millennium development goals and oral health in cities in southern Brazil

Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2010; 38: 197 205 All rights reserved Ó 2010 John Wiley & Sons A/S Millennium development goals and oral health in cities in southern Brazil Roberto Eduardo Bueno*, Samuel Jorge Moysés and Simone Tetu Moysés Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brasil Bueno RE, Moysés SJ, Moysés ST. Millennium development goals and oral health in cities in southern Brazil. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2010; 38: 197 205. Ó 2010 John Wiley & Sons A S. Abstract Objectives: To investigate social determinants of oral health, analysing the occurrence of associations between millennium development goals (MDG) indicators and oral health (OH) indicators. Methods: An ecological study was performed in two distinct phases. In Phase 1, MDG indicators and related covariates were obtained from the demographic census of the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, the Ministry of Health database and the 2000 Human Development Atlas, making up the whole set of independent variables. Principal component analysis was carried out for the independent variables showing the correlations among the variables comprising the main components, and generating a synthetic index allowing the performance of the cities to be known with regard to the MDG (MDG index). In Phase 2, the DMFT index (mean number of decay, missing or filled permanent teeth) and the CF index (prevalence of caries-free individuals), in 12 years old were obtained from the epidemiological survey undertaken in 2002 2003, in 49 cities in southern Brazil, and were analysed in relation to the MDG index using Spearman s correlation. Results: A statistically significant correlation was found for the DMFT and CF indices, respectively, with: the MDG index (R 2 = 0.49 and 0.48; P = 0.00); the socioeconomic status of the population (R 2 = 0.12 and 0.12; P = 0.02); the socioenvironmental characteristics (R 2 = 0.41 and 0.46; P = 0.00). Conclusions: The MDG synthetic index of the cities analysed and the respective components relating to their socioeconomic and socioenvironmental status demonstrated a positive correlation with OH indicators. As such, intersectoral public policies based on population strategies that act on social determinants of general and oral health need to be integrated so as to impact on the MDG and OH outcomes. Key words: dental caries; epidemiology; health promotion; oral health; social determinants of health Roberto Eduardo Bueno, Alameda Butantã, 300, Zaniolo, São José dos Pinhais, PR 83025-745, Brazil Tel.: 55 41 33835552 e-mail: roberto.edu.bueno@gmail.com *Grant Holder: CAPES Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior. Submitted 6 November 2009; accepted 21 December 2009 Introduction At the Millennium Summit, held in September 2000, 191 countries committed to making efforts to meet the millennium development goals (MDG) by the year 2015 (1). The MDG were the result of complex negotiations that converged in the principal commitments of a series of international meetings held during the 1990s, such as the Environmental Conferences in Rio de Janeiro (1992), the Vienna Human Rights Conference (1993), the Cairo Conference on Population and Development (1994), the World Summit for Social Development in Copenhagen (1995) and the World Conference on Women in Peking (1995). The MDG are addressed to improving living s and promoting social equity. The eight goals are monitored by means of 18 targets with 48 indicators. The goals include: (i) eradicating poverty and hunger; (ii) achieving universal quality primary education; (iii) promoting gender equality and empowering women; (iv) reducing child mortality; (v) improving maternal health; (vi) combating HIV AIDS, malaria and other diseases; doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0528.2010.00531.x 197

Bueno et al. (vii) improving quality of life and ensuring environmental sustainability; and (viii) encouraging a global partnership for development. The goals can also serve as a link between the agendas of governments, companies and civil society. They are extensive references for the formulation of intersectoral public policies, aimed at social inclusion, reduction of inequities, promotion of health and quality of life of more vulnerable populations, with protection of the environment and sustainable development. In Chile in March 2005, the World Health Organization (WHO) launched the Commission on Social Determinants of Health, providing support to governments with theoretical and strategic inputs for improving the health s and well-being of their populations, having equity as a fundamental principle (2). The participants of the Commission defined the theory of Dahlgren and Whitehead as one of the references used to explain equity in health (3). According to this far-reaching theoretical model, equity in health is determined at different levels, ranging from the individual to the collective, involving public health policies aimed at equality and the strengthening of individuals and communities, improved access to essential services and macro-economic and cultural change. The Division of Equity at the World Health Organization defines health equity as the absence of unfair, avoidable or unnecessary differences in relation to the health of a given population or several groups, within or between countries, defined by social, economic, demographic or geographic criteria (2, 4).Social disadvantages, mainly when accumulated during childhood and analysed throughout the life course of a person, can exacerbate health inequities (5 7). Inequity implies failure to avoid or overcome health differences that breach human rights, and are deeply rooted as unfair social stratification. Health inequity can therefore be defined as a moral category engrained in political reality and in the negotiation of social relations of power (2, 4). Widespread poor oral health is one of the most evident expressions of inequity with regard to poverty and social and health exclusion (8). In this sense, the MDG indicators are also considered to be important measures of inequities, therefore any existing progresses of MDG among populations can be used to guide the analysis of their health dynamics, including oral health. The interconnection between health and development, as thoroughly reflected by the MDG statements, was reaffirmed in the document prepared by the Commission on Social Determinants of Health which criticised the utilitarian view that health is just a resource for economic development, arguing instead that socioeconomic s can, also, determine the health of a population (2). More specifically, and having relevant implications for this study, it is acknowledged at large that socioeconomic influences play a relevant role in the changes observed in health indicators, including oral health. A study based on data from 18 industrialized countries showed that dental services, measured in terms of the dentist population ratio, accounted for 3% of the reduction observed in the 12 years old mean caries prevalence, through the 1970s and mid 1980s, whereas social factors accounted for 65% of the observed reduction (9). These findings undoubtedly may challenge the still dominant biomedical paradigm in dentistry, because they made it explicit that socioeconomic factors, such as education levels, the percentage of economically active highly educated women and the level of social inequality were able to explain 65% of the observed reduction of dental caries. These results also confirm that socioeconomic status is strongly related to dental caries (9 11). Emphasis has been clearly made in recent literature on social determinants and their impact on health as a whole and on oral health in particular (8, 12 17). Political and sectorial agendas working on social determinants of health can encourage the effective fulfilment of the MDG in nations, states and cities. It is therefore important to further analyse social determinants of health through the associations between MDG indicators and oral health indicators. Method This is an ecological study, involving the use of aggregated data suitable for measuring the health situation of human groups taken globally, and how their health is influenced by social, environmental and behavioural s (18). The study was divided into two distinct phases. In Phase 1, MDG indicators were obtained from the 2000 demographic census undertaken by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) (19), the Ministry of Health database 198

Millennium development goals and oral health (DATASUS) (20) and the UNDP Human Development Atlas (21) for the year 2000. Nine MDG variables were selected, based on the theoretical input obtained from the review of the literature and also based on the availability of information about 49 cities in Southern Brazil, namely: (i) the percentage of people below the poverty line, corresponding to the family per capita income of less than ½ a minimum wage (Source: UNDP) (21); (ii) percentage of functionally illiterate people (less than 4 years of education); (iii) the ratio of illiterate men and women (Source: IBGE) (19); (iv) the mortality rate in children aged under 5 years old (per 1000 live births); (v) the percentage of children born to adolescent mothers aged in the range of 10 19 years old (Source: DATASUS) (20); (vi) the percentage of people living in homes with access to mains water supply and a bathroom; (vii) the percentage of people having their litter collected; (viii) the percentage of people with access to a telephone; (ix) the percentage of people with a computer (Source: IBGE) (19). In addition, six covariates associated with oral health outcomes according to the literature on this area were also obtained and analysed, namely: (i) length of time, in years, the water supply has been fluoridated (Source: Oral Health Brazil) (22); (ii) the 1991 Municipal Human Development Index (HDI- M 1991); (iii) the 2000 Municipal Human Development Index (HDI-M 2000); (iv) Per-Capita Income (Source: UNDP) (21); (v) Population; and (vi) Rate of Urbanization (Source: IBGE 2000 census) (19). As they showed significant associations by bivariate analysis, they were subsequently included in the whole analysis. Factor analysis of principal components was performed to find evidence of possible correlations between the MDG variables and to simplify the data by reducing the number of variables aiming at statistical parsimony. This analysis assumes that a smaller number of variables exist subjacent to the data (components), which express what the original variables have in common. This analysis also enabled the validity of the variables that made up the components to be evaluated, by informing whether or not they load the concepts they aim to express (23). This analysis was the chosen technique for weighting and reducing various indicators to a single index of cities in this study. Also was used to confirm the theory with regard to social determinants of health. Principal components extraction with Varimax (orthogonal) rotation through SPSS 14.0 was used to evaluate assumptions and limitations and to estimate the number of principal components from eigenvalues. An eigenvalue can be thought of as an index of variance. In principal components analysis, each principal component yields an eigenvalue, which is the amount of the total variance explained by the component. The adopted criterion was what is used usually in the specialized literature of the area, the test of larger eigenvalue than 1 (23). The final stage in the development of an index was to integrate the set of indicators into a single measure, after weighting them consistently as to their relative importance in explaining the features of the synthetic MDG index. The index so obtained facilitated further analysis, when the research objectives aimed at ranking the study cities. Based on this analysis, synthetic MDG index (final scores) were calculated, per city, using the weighted average of the scores obtained from the factor analysis of principal components of the 15 variables covariates and the total variance explained by the 3 components, using the following equation: SYNTHETIC MDG INDEX = [(score of the 1st Component variance of the 1st Component) + (score of the 2nd Component variance of the 2nd Component) + (score of the 3rd Component variance of the 3rd Component)] total variance. The synthetic MDG indices described performance towards achieving the MDG, in terms of the observational units (cities), using the regression method, combining information on those dimensions of city structure which were likely to be most important for the study hypothesis and developed a typology of cities based on these dimensions which could be used as a basis for assessing social determinants of health (23). In Phase 2 of the study, the oral health indicators (outcome variables), the DMFT index (mean number of decay, missing or filled permanent teeth) and the prevalence of 12 years old caries-free children were obtained from the national epidemiological survey undertaken in 2002 2003 (22). These secondary data were aggregated by city. The population of the study was originally intended to be comprised of 50 cities located in the southern region of Brazil, which had been part of the probabilistic sample of the national survey, but one city was excluded because of the data lacking for the 12 years old, which is the target age of this study. The final sample was therefore comprised of 49 cities, providing total for 7119 individuals aged 12 years old. 199

Bueno et al. A descriptive analysis was conducted to explore association between the oral health outcome variables and exposure variables. Finally, Spearman s correlation was applied to the three principal components of the factor analysis and their synthetic MDG indices in relation to the 49 cities and the respective oral health outcomes, namely the DMFT index and the prevalence of caries-free children at 12 years old. Results The asymmetrical distribution for the 49 cities in Southern Brazil in 2003 of the index CPO-D to the 12 years presented mean of 2.8 (95% CI: 2.37 3.20); median of 2.3; standard deviation of 1.4; and interquartile range of 1.9. The percentage prevalence rate of caries-free children presented mean of 30.7 (95% CI: 25.79 35.54); median of 31.8; standard deviation of 17.0; and variation interquartile range of 26.3. The six included covariates demonstrated significant association (P = 0.00) with oral health outcomes variables when bivariate analysis was performed. The principal components analysis explained 82.16% of the total variance of the distribution of the 15 variables covariates in the three principal components identified (Table 1). The rotated loadings matrix (Table 2) determined how many and which of the 15 variables covariables covariates were loaded in each principal component. Based on the principal components analysis, the components obtained were combined into a Table 1. Total variance explained by the final rotated solution, for the 15 variables covariates of 49 cities in the southern region of Brazil, 2000 Component Rotation sums of squared loadings Total % Variation Cumulative % Socioeconomic 4.328 28.85 28.85 Human development and mother and child health 4.175 27.84 56.69 Socioenvironmental 3.822 25.47 82.16 Extraction method: principal component analysis. Table 2. Matrix of rotated components, loadings and component labels, for 49 cities of the southern region of Brazil, 2000 Principal components Socioeconomic Human development and mother and child health Population (city size) 0.862 Proportion of people having a computer 0.818 Per capita income 0.817 Ratio of literate women and men 0.696 Proportion of people having a telephone 0.671 Mortality rate among children aged under 5 years )0.864 Proportion of teenage mothers (10 19 years) )0.800 HDI-M 2000 0.769 Proportion of people below the poverty line )0.736 HDI-M 1991 0.685 Functional illiteracy rate )0.628 Urbanization rate 0.833 Proportion of households having rubbish 0.814 collection Length of time water supply has been 0.774 fluoridated (years) Proportion of households with mains 0.703 water and a bathroom Socioenvironmental Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization. Rotation converged in 4 iterations. Component Scoring. 200

Millennium development goals and oral health synthetic MDG index (final score), and this made it possible to classify the cities according to an ordinal scale (Table 3), ranging from 1.14 (best performance) to )1.50 (worst performance) (23). Spearman s correlation (Table 4) showed a statistically significant association of the synthetic MDG index of the performance of the cities and, separately, of the Socioeconomic and Socioenvironmental components, with the DMFT index and prevalence of caries-free children. On the other hand, no association was observed between these outcomes and the component relating to Human development and mother and child health. A statistically significant Table 3. Case summaries of oral health outcomes, principal components and synthetic MDG index (decreasing order of performance profile) in 49 cities in Southern Brazil, 2000 2003 Cities DMFT % Caries-free Socioeconomic Human development mother and child health Socioenvironmental 1 1.06 53.48 3.76 )0.28 )0.26 1.14 2 1.39 47.15 3.72 )0.94 0.36 1.10 3 1.30 50.37 2.31 0.53 0.24 1.07 4 1.30 52.02 1.40 0.70 0.49 0.88 5 1.12 58.85 1.05 1.05 0.35 0.83 6 2.20 33.99 0.34 1.46 0.61 0.80 7 1.19 60.45 0.65 1.13 0.18 0.67 8 1.82 41.52 0.33 0.16 0.91 0.45 9 1.63 53.85 0.48 )0.09 0.97 0.44 10 2.35 34.01 )0.41 0.91 0.83 0.42 11 1.54 43.75 )0.20 0.28 1.03 0.35 12 1.41 45.45 )0.33 0.31 1.11 0.33 13 1.61 41.50 )0.35 0.17 1.22 0.31 14 1.82 40.10 0.41 0.46 0.01 0.30 15 3.33 24.08 )0.08 0.30 0.50 0.23 16 1.83 35.35 )0.84 0.35 1.22 0.20 17 1.63 42.70 )0.17 )0.22 1.05 0.19 18 0.80 62.02 )1.11 0.42 1.38 0.18 19 3.47 25.14 )0.25 0.50 0.31 0.18 20 1.34 48.10 )0.69 )0.17 1.40 0.14 21 5.81 8.51 )0.43 0.67 )0.02 0.07 22 2.55 20.78 )0.12 1.49 )1.28 0.07 23 3.00 20.00 )0.51 1.68 )1.14 0.04 24 2.85 23.60 )0.04 1.18 )1.15 0.03 25 2.11 39.81 0.14 )0.94 0.92 0.02 26 2.29 31.85 )0.35 )0.30 0.75 0.01 27 3.48 17.72 )0.48 1.46 )1.05 0.00 28 1.63 41.40 )0.27 )0.74 1.09 )0.01 29 2.98 24.66 )0.20 )0.62 0.74 )0.05 30 4.54 5.00 )0.35 0.19 0.01 )0.05 31 3.27 29.09 )1.37 0.14 1.21 )0.06 32 3.12 18.60 )0.59 0.53 )0.25 )0.10 33 4.70 13.04 )0.34 0.55 )0.59 )0.12 34 3.80 20.53 )0.04 )0.06 )0.56 )0.21 35 3.49 18.45 0.32 )0.66 )0.33 )0.22 36 2.22 34.87 )0.42 0.09 )0.52 )0.28 37 4.01 7.69 )0.51 0.43 )0.88 )0.30 38 1.36 52.66 )0.71 )1.29 1.02 )0.37 39 3.39 19.16 0.00 )1.53 0.34 )0.41 40 7.21 4.65 )0.45 0.42 )1.50 )0.48 41 4.38 4.76 )0.93 1.01 )1.71 )0.51 42 2.30 45.39 )0.74 )0.57 )0.20 )0.52 43 2.14 32.50 )0.41 )1.14 )0.03 )0.54 44 6.28 6.98 0.30 )0.80 )1.68 )0.69 45 2.43 27.50 0.37 )0.33 )2.61 )0.79 46 5.00 0.00 )0.46 )0.34 )1.86 )0.85 47 4.08 10.59 )0.29 )1.82 )1.13 )1.07 48 4.42 10.75 )0.87 )2.60 )0.43 )1.32 49 3.44 18.18 )0.30 )3.13 )1.08 )1.50 Synthetic MDG Index 201

Bueno et al. Table 4. Spearman s correlation between cities MDG performance and oral health outcomes Socioeconomic Human development and mother and child health Socioenvironmental Synthetic MDG Index Coefficient P Coefficient P Coefficient P Coefficient P DMFT )0.340* 0.017 )0.057 0.698 )0.644** 0.000 )0.699** 0.000 % Caries-free 0.342* 0.016 0.022 0.882 0.680** 0.000 0.692** 0.000 *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). correlation was found of the DMFT and CF indices, respectively, with: the MDG index (R 2 = 0.49 and 0.48; P = 0.00); the socioeconomic status of the population (R 2 = 0.12 and 0.12; P = 0.02) and the socioenvironmental characteristics (R 2 = 0.41 and 0.46; P = 0.00). Even considering the exclusion of the years of water supply fluoridation covariate, the factor related to socioenvironmental characteristic maintained the significant correlation with the oral health outcomes (R 2 = 0.37 and 0.43; P = 0.00). A strong correlation was observed between the outcomes mentioned and the Component relating to socioenvironmental which explained 41% of the variance of the DMFT index and 46% of the variance in the prevalence of 12 years old children free from caries (Fig. 1). The synthetic MDG index explained 48% of the variance in the prevalence of 12 years old free from caries and explained 49% of the variance in the DMFT index at 12 years old, as shown in Fig. 2. Discussion The limitations inherent to an ecological study, whereby observations made at the aggregate level of analysis cannot be inferred in relation to individuals, as well as the risk of cross-classification and migration between population strata must be considered when interpreting the results (18). Nevertheless, one of the likely limitations of studies with such approach, which is the collinearity of the independent (contextual) variables covariates, has been addressed and minimized through the use of principal component analysis (23). The principal component analysis used in this study demonstrated a correlation between the Fig. 1. Correlation between socioenvironmental and the prevalence of 12-year-old caries-free children, in 49 cities in southern Brazil, 2003. Fig. 2. Correlation between the Final Score (municipal performance profile: synthetic MDG index) and DMFT index in 12-year olds in 49 cities in southern Brazil, 2003. 202

Millennium development goals and oral health components relating to the cities MDG performance, as well as covariates of interest, and the oral health outcomes. Both the overall performance of the cities analysed, as measured by the synthetic MDG index, and the components relating to socioeconomic and socioenvironmental s demonstrated themselves to be correlated with the oral health indicators analysed, namely the DMFT index and the prevalence of 12 years old caries-free children. In cities in the state of Paraná and also in Brazil, better Municipal Human Development Indices (HDI-M) have been associated with a longer period of fluoridation of the public water supply and lower average dental caries experience (24, 25). A tendency of lower DMFT indices was observed in larger cities. The effectiveness of water fluoridation on caries reduction is a widely accepted fact, both by public health specialists and by the dental community, in Brazil and internationally (26). The reduction in DMFT rates has been attributed, besides other important factors, to the scaling up of the fluoridation of the public water supply, especially in southern and south-eastern Brazil (27). Baldani et al. (28) found that access of households to treated and fluoridated water is an important benefit, not only as a means of reducing caries levels but also for alleviating the impact of socioeconomic inequalities on caries prevalence. These authors also used education indicators such as the illiteracy coefficient, the average number of years of schooling and repeated school years and the percentages of children aged 7 14 years not attending school, among others to show the higher prevalence of caries in cities in the state of Paraná with the worst education indicators. Social class and degrees of hardship have been associated with dental caries, periodontal diseases, tooth loss and toothlessness in adults and children in the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and Chile (16, 17, 29 34). In Brazil, there has been an increase in the evidence that average caries experience follows the same international tendency in relation to social and health inequities faced by the population (35 40). Moysés et al. (38) in an evaluation of state schools in poor outlying districts of Curitiba benefited by health promotion policies, observed that students attending better schools, referred to as supportive schools based on their physical, environmental, curricular and social attributes, among others, had an oral health profile superior to those attending unsupportive schools, thus resulting in a higher percentage of caries-free schoolchildren. Peres et al. (40) performed an evaluation in the cities of the state of Santa Catarina on the factors that influence the addition of fluoride to the water supply system, this being a measure indicated by the literature as being predominant in caries prevention and the reduction of the negative impact of social inequalities on caries prevalence. The results indicate that municipalities with larger populations, higher indices of child development and lower rates of illiteracy are associated with a longer period of implementation of water fluoridation. General socioeconomic and socioenvironmental factors have played an expressive role in explaining oral health outcomes (24 43). These studies corroborate the findings of the present study, in that the synthetic MDG index of 49 cities in southern Brazil explained 49% of the DMFT index variance in 12 years old. This is a significant epidemiological result, because oral health outcomes are predominantly explained by biological factors and are rarely associated with social factors. In the case of dental caries, a disease of multifactorial aetiology and usually explained by individual determinants, the evidences found through this study can contribute towards more in-depth analyses of the social determinants indicated by the MDG with regard to caries experience in populations. Conclusion MDG indicators have significant associations with oral health indicators. Both the overall performance of the cities analysed, measured by the use of the synthetic MDG index, and their principal factorial components in relation to socioeconomic and socioenvironmental s demonstrate themselves to be correlated to oral health indicators. As such, intersectoral public policies based on population strategies that act on the social determinants of general and oral health need to be integrated. However, longitudinal studies are needed to evaluate in greater depth the performance and the impact of the public healthy policies monitored in this study using the MDG. 203

Bueno et al. References 1. United Nations Information Centre. United Nations Millennium Declaration 2000. Lisbon: United Nations Information Centre; 2001. 2. Commission on Social Determinants of Health. A Conceptual Framework for Action on the Social Determinants of Health. Vancouver: Commission on Social Determinants of Health; 2007. 3. Dahlgren G, Whitehead M. Policies and Strategies to Promote Social Equity in Health. Stockholm: Institute for Future Studies; 1991. 4. Whitehead M. The concepts and principles of equity and health. Int J Health Serv 1992;22:429 45. 5. Watt RG. From victim blaming to upstream action: tackling the social determinants of oral health inequalities. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2007;35:1 11. 6. Bastos JL, Peres MA, Peres KG, Araújo CL, Menezes AM. Toothache prevalence and associated factors: a life course study from birth to age 12 yr. Eur J Oral Sci 2008;116:458 66. 7. Nicolau B, Marcenes W, Hardy R, Sheiham A. A lifecourse approach to assess the relationship between social and psychological circumstances and gingival status in adolescents. J Clin Periodontol 2003;30: 1038 45. 8. Petersen PE. The World Oral Health Report 2003: Continuous improvement of oral health in the 21 st century the approach of the WHO Global Oral Health Programme. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2003;31:3 24. 9. Nadanovsky P, Sheiham A. The relative contribution of dental services to the changes in caries levels of 12 year-old children in 18 industrialised countries in the 1970s and early 1980s. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 1995;23:331 9. 10. Charmichael CL, Rugg-Gunn A, French AD, Cranage JD. The effect of fluoridation upon the relationship between caries experience and social class in 5 yearsold children in Newcastle and Northumberland. Br Dent J 1980;149:163 7. 11. O Brien M. Children s dental health in the United Kingdom 1993. In: Her Majesty s Stationery Office editor. Report of Dental Survey, Office of Population Censuses and Surveys. London: HMSO; 1994. 74 6. 12. U. S. Departament of Health and Human Services. Oral health in America: a report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, MD: U. S. Departament of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research. NIH publication 00-4713; 2000. 13. Sheiham A, Watt RG. The common risk factor approach: a rational basis for promoting oral health. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2000;28:399 406. 14. Lopez NJ, Smith PC, Gutierrez J. Higher risk of preterm birth and low birth weight in women with periodontal disease. J Dent Res 2002;81:58 63. 15. Lopez NJ, Smith PC, Gutierrez J. Periodontal therapy may reduce the risk of preterm low birth weight in women with periodontal disease: a randomized controlled trial. J Periodontol 2002;73:911 24. 16. Sanders A, Slade GD, Turrel G, Spencer AJ, Marcenes W. The shape of the socioeconomic-oral health gradient: implications for theoretical explanations. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2006;34:310 9. 17. Sabbah W, Tsakos G, Chandola T, Sheiham A, Watt RG. Social gradients in oral and general health. J Dent Res 2007;86:992 6. 18. Morgenstern H. Ecologic studies. In: Rothman KJ, Greenland S, editors. Modern Epidemiology. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Rave Publishers, 1998; 459 80. 19. Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE). Available at: http://www.ibge.gov.br [last accessed 9 March 2008]. 20. Brazil, Ministry of Health. Available at: http:// www.saude.gov.br [last accessed 18 March 2008]. 21. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Brazilian human development atlas; available at: http://www.pnud.org.br [last accessed 27 March 2008]. 22. Brazil, Ministry of Health. Health Care Secretariat. Basic Care Department. 2003 Brazilian Oral Health Project: Oral Health Conditions of the Brazilian Population 2002 2003: Principal Results. Brazil: Ministry of Health; 2004. 23. Pestana MH, Gageiro JG. Factorial Analysis. In: Pestana MH, Gageiro JG, editors. Análise de dados para Ciências Sociais: a complementaridade do SPSS, 3rd edn. Lisboa: Edições Sílabo, 2003; 495 544. 24. Gabardo MCL, da Silva WJ, Moysés ST, Moysés SJ. Water fluoridation as a marker for sociodental inequalities. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2008;36:103 7. 25. Moysés SJ, Gabardo MCL, Silva WJ, Olandoski M, Moysés ST. Inequalities in public water supply fluoridation in Brazil: An ecological study. BMC Oral Health 2008;8:9. 26. Narvai PC, Frazão P, Castellanos RA. Dental caries experience decline in permanent teeth of the brazilian schoolchildren at end of XX century. Odont Soc 1999;1:25 9. 27. Antunes JL, Peres MA, de Campos de Mello TR, Waldman EA. Multilevel assessment of determinants of dental caries experience in Brazil. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2006;34:146 52. 28. Baldani MH, Narvai PC, Antunes JLF. Dental caries and socioeconomic s in the State of Paraná, Brazil, 1996. Cadernos de Saúde Pública 2002;18: 755 63. 29. Watt R, Sheiham A. Inequalities in oral health: a review of the evidence and recommendations for action. Br Dent J 1999;187:6 12. 30. Locker D. Deprivation and oral health: a review. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2000;28:161 9. 31. Nuttall N. The prevention of social inequalities in oral health. In: Murray JJ, Nunn JH, Steele JG, editors. Prevention of Oral Disease. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003; 250 66. 32. Thomson WM, Mackay D. Child dental caries patterns described using a combination of area-based and househol-based socioeconomic status measures. Community Dent Health 2004;21:285 90. 33. Lopez R, Fernandez O, Baelum V. Social gradients in periodontal disease among adolescents. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2006;34:184 96. 204

Millennium development goals and oral health 34. Sanders AE, Spencer AJ, Slade GD. Evaluating the role of dental behaviour in oral health inequalities. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2006;34:71 9. 35. Patussi MP, Marcenes W, Croucher R, Sheiham A. Social deprivation, income inequality, social cohesion and dental caries in Brazilian school children. Social Sci Med 2001;53:915 25. 36. Antunes JLF, Frazão P, Narvai PC, Bispo CM, Pegoretti T. Spatial analysis to identify differentials in dental needs by area-base measures. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2002;30:133 42. 37. Antunes JLF, Narvai PC, Nugent ZJ. Measuring inequalities in the distribution of dental caries. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2004;32:41 8. 38. Moysés ST, Moysés SJ, Watt RG, Sheiham A. Associations between health promotion schools policies and indicators of oral health in Brazil. Health Promotion International 2003;18:209 18. 39. Moysés SJ, Moysés ST, McCarthy M, Sheiham A. Intra-urban differentials in child dental trauma in relation to Healthy Cities in Curitiba, Brazil. Health Place 2006;12:48 64. 40. Peres MA, Fernandes LS, Peres KG. Inequality of water fluoridation in Southern Brazil the inverse equity hypothesis revisited. Social Sci Med 2004;58:1181 9. 41. Ferrazzano GF, Scaravilli MS, Ingenito A. Dental and periodontal health status in Campanian children and relation between caries experience and socio-economic behavioural factors. Eur J Paediatr Dent 2006;7:174 8. 42. Ahmed NA, Astron AN, Skaug N, Petersen PE. Dental caries prevalence and risk factors among 12-year old schoolchildrem from Baghdad, Iraq: a post-war survey. Dent J 2007;57:36 44. 43. Pau A, Khan SS, Babar MG, Croucher R. Dental pain and care-seeking in 11 14-yr-old adolescents in a low-income country. Eur J Oral Sci 2008; 116:451 7. 205