Prevalence and risk factor analysis of microalbuminuria in Japanese general population: The Takahata study

http://www.kidney-international.org & 2006 International Society of Nephrology original article Prevalence and risk factor analysis of microalbuminuria in Japanese general population: The Takahata study T Konta 1, Z Hao 1, H Abiko 1, M Ishikawa 1, T Takahashi 1, A Ikeda 1, K Ichikawa 1, S Takasaki 1 and I Kubota 1 1 Department of Cardiology, Pulmonology, and Nephrology, Yamagata University School of Medicine, Yamagata, Japan Microalbuminuria, an indicator of glomerular injury, is associated with increased risk of progressive renal deterioration, cardiovascular disease, and mortality. However, the prevalence of microalbuminuria in Japanese general population is less certain. Thus, we examined the prevalence of microalbuminuria and its associated risk factors in Japan. Subjects of this cross-sectional study were asymptomatic individuals over 40 years in Takahata, Japan. Urine albumin creatinine ratio was calculated from a single-spot urine specimen collected in the morning. Creatinine clearance (CCr) was obtained by Cockcroft Gault equation. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to determine which risk factors (i.e., age, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and salt intake) might predict the presence of microalbuminuria. A total of 2321 subjects (mean age, 64 years; men, 1034; women, 1287) were entered into the final analysis. Among them, the prevalence of microalbuminuria, macroalbuminuria, and proteinuria by dipstick test (X1 þ ) were 317 (13.7%), 39 (1.7%), and 103 (4.4%), respectively. Age, hypertension, and diabetes were independently associated with microalbuminuria in men. In addition to the classical risk factors detected in men, estimated 24-h urinary sodium excretion and uric acid were also independently associated with microalbuminuria in women. Among the 668 subjects with renal insufficiency (CCr o60 ml/min/1.73 m 2 ), the prevalence of microalbuminuria and macroalbuminuria were 119 (17.8%) and 18 (2.7%), respectively. In conclusion, microalbuminuria is prevalent across all age groups and is associated with lifestyle-related risk factors in Japanese general population. However, there are a substantial number of subjects with renal insufficiency accompanying no microalbuminuria. Kidney International (2006) 70, 751 756. doi:10.1038/sj.ki.5001504; published online 28 June 2006 KEYWORDS: microalbuminuria; general population; hypertension; diabetes; uric acid; salt intake Correspondence: T Konta, Department of Cardiology, Pulmonology, and Nephrology, Yamagata University School of Medicine, Yamagata, 2-2-2, Iida-Nishi, Yamagata 990-9585, Japan. E-mail: kkonta@med.id.yamagata-u.ac.jp Received 14 September 2005; revised 17 January 2006; accepted 10 February 2006; published online 28 June 2006 During recent years, epidemiological studies revealed that the number of patients affected by chronic kidney disease (CKD) has increased worldwide. It resulted in the steady increase of patients with end-stage renal disease treated by dialysis or renal transplantation. Japan is one of the countries with the highest incidence rate of end-stage renal disease. In 2003, the number of Japanese end-stage renal disease patients has reached to 237 710 and is still growing. 1 Recent progresses in pharmacological and nutritional therapy for patients with CKD have suggested that early detection and appropriate treatment may reduce the incidence of end-stage renal disease. 2 4 However, CKD, especially at its early stage, is unlikely to show apparent symptoms and is easily overlooked. Thus, it is necessary to establish the appropriate method to detect the silent CKD. The microalbuminuria is reported to be associated with a higher incidence of cardiovascular complication in the general population. 5,6 The appearance of microalbuminuria also predicts an increased risk of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality in patients with hypertension and diabetes. 7,8 Several studies have disclosed that risk factors for presence of microalbuminuria includes age, hypertension, hyperglycemia, smoking, male gender, C-reactive protein, white blood cell counts, 9 and hypercholesterolemia. 10 However, these results concerning the microalbuminuria were mostly obtained from data based on non-asian population. Therefore, we undertook the population-based study to examine the prevalence of microalbuminuria and its risk factors in Takahata, Japan. RESULTS Characteristics of subjects Baseline characteristics of 2321 subjects who entered into final analysis were shown in Table 1. Overall, mean age was 64 years. Among them, there were 1034 men (44.5%), 1323 subjects (57.0%) with hypertension, 722 subjects (31.1%) with obesity, 201 subjects (8.7%) with diabetes, 757 subjects (32.6%) with hypercholesterolemia, and 317 subjects (13.7%) with microalbuminuria. Average of 24-h urinary sodium excretion estimated by Kawasaki s formula was 209.1 meq/ day. Age, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, serum creatinine, estimated 24-h urinary sodium excretion, fasting blood sugar, uric acid, urine creatinine, percentage of diabetes, current smoking, and drinking were significantly Kidney International (2006) 70, 751 756 751

o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e T Konta et al.: Microalbuminuria in Japanese population higher in men compared to women. The creatinine clearance (CCr) and the percentage of hypercholesterolemia were higher in women compared to men. Prevalence of microalbuminuria In the general population, microalbuminuria was prevalent across all age groups and the proportion of subjects with microalbuminuria increases with age (Figure 1). Among the 2321 subjects who were asymptomatic aged over 40 years, the prevalence of microalbuminuria, macroalbuminuria, and proteinuria by dipstick test (X1 þ ) were Table 1 Comparisons of baseline characteristics between men and women Men Women Number 1034 1287 Age (years) 64.2710.2 a 63.3710.0 Systolic BP (mm Hg) 136.4715.4 a 132.7715.8 Diastolic BP (mm Hg) 81.779.6 a 76.679.4 BMI (kg/m 2 ) 23.473.0 23.673.4 Hypertension (%) 59.1 55.2 Obesity (%) 31.0 31.2 Smoker (%) 61.0 a 7.7 Drinker (%) 72.3 a 14.4 Diabetes (%) 10.5 a 7.1 Hypercholesterolemia (%) 22.9 a 40.4 Microalbuminuria (%) 14.5 12.9 Serum creatinine (mg/dl) 0.7870.26 a 0.5970.12 Serum total cholesterol (mg/dl) 192.7730.8 206.8730.3 Estimated 24-h urinary sodium 218.7760.9 a 200.7752.3 excretion (meq/day) b Fasting blood sugar (mg/dl) 93.0728.6 a 85.2727.3 Uric acid (mg/dl) 5.7471.30 a 4.4971.08 CCr/BSA (ml/min/1.73 m 2 ) 67.8714.9 a 69.4715.0 Urine creatinine (g/l) 1.3370.67 a 1.0370.53 Urine albumin (mg/l) 10.5 (0.8 6146.0) 10.2 (0.6 2429.5) BMI, body mass index; BP, blood pressure; BSA, body surface area; CCr, creatinine clearance. a Po0.05 men vs women. b Estimated 24-h urinary sodium excretion from the spot urine. Urine albumin is expressed as median with range (min max). 317 (13.7%), 39 (1.7%), and 103 (4.4%), respectively (Table 2). The prevalence of proteinuria is about one-third of that of microalbuminuria. Sensitivity and specificity of urinary protein dipstick test (X1 þ ) for micro- or macroalbuminuria (urine albumin creatinine ratio (UACR) X30 mg/g) was 26.8 and 99.6%, respectively. Relationship between microalbuminuria and renal insufficiency Next, we investigated the relationship between microalbuminuria and renal insufficiency. In total, the prevalence of the subjects with normal or increased CCr (X90 ml/min/ 1.73 m 2 ), mildly decreased CCr (60 89 ml/min/1.73 m 2 ), and moderately or severely decreased CCr (o60 ml/min/ 1.73 m 2 ) were 7.6, 63.6, and 28.8%, respectively. The percentage of renal insufficiency was increasing along with age. Table 2 shows that among the 668 subjects with moderate or severe renal insufficiency (CCr o60 ml/min/1.73 m 2 ), the prevalence of normoalbuminuria, microalbuminuria, and macroalbuminuria were 531 (79.5%), 119 (17.8%), and 18 (2.7%), respectively. On the contrary, among the 1653 subjects with relatively preserved CCr (X60 ml/min/ 1.73 m 2 ), the prevalence of normoalbuminuria, microalbuminuria, and macroalbuminuria were 1434 (86.7%), 198 (12.0%), and 21 (1.3%), respectively. Risk factors for microalbuminuria Next, we examined the relationship between the presence of microalbuminuria and risk factors. The distribution of UACR among study subjects was highly skewed toward the larger values. The 25, 50, and 75th percentile values of UACR were 5.1, 8.1, and 18.1 mg/g in men, and 6.8, 10.1, and 19.0 mg/g in women, respectively. We categorized UACR into quartiles and then compared the mean value or percentage of risk factors in each quartile. Table 3 showed that age, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, body mass index, the percentage of hypertension, diabetes, estimated 24-h urinary sodium a 30 Macroalbuminuria Microalbuminuria Macroalbuminuria Microalbuminuria 30 b Prevalence (%) 20 10 Prevalence (%) 20 10 0 40 44 45 49 50 54 55 59 60 64 65 69 70 74 75 79 N=39 N=58 N=121 N=107 N=160 N=190 N=194 N=128 Age (years) 80 N=37 0 40 44 45 49 50 54 55 59 60 64 65 69 70 74 75 79 80 N=60 N=74 N=151 N=191 N=183 N=210 N=246 N=137 N=36 Age (years) Figure 1 Distribution of micro- and macroalbuminuria by age in (a) men and (b) women. 752 Kidney International (2006) 70, 751 756

T Konta et al.: Microalbuminuria in Japanese population o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e Table 2 Prevalence of microalbuminuria, macroalbuminuria, and proteinuria according to estimated CCr Estimated CCr (ml/min/1.73 m 2 ) N (%) Microalbuminuria (%) Macroalbuminuria (%) Proteinuria (%) X90 176 (7.6) 23 (13.0) 3 (1.7) 10 (5.7) 60 89 1477 (63.6) 175 (11.8) 18 (1.2) 56 (3.8) o60 668 (28.8) 119 (17.8) 18 (2.7) 37 (5.5) Total 2321 317 (13.7) 39 (1.7) 103 (4.4) CCr, creatinine clearance; UACR, urine albumin creatinine ratio. Microalbuminuria, UACR: 30 300mg/g; macroalbuminuria, UACR 4300 mg/g; proteinuria, urine dipstick test X1+. Table 3 Comparisons of baseline characteristics among quartile groups classified by UACR levels in men UACR quartile groups Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 P-value Number 270 254 251 259 Age (years) 60.8710.3 64.579.9 64.979.8 66.879.7 o0.001 Systolic BP (mm Hg) 129.6714.5 135.2714.9 138.8713.6 142.5715.4 o0.001 Diastolic BP (mm Hg) 78.979.5 81.178.8 82.879.1 83.9710.1 o0.001 BMI (kg/m 2 ) 23.072.9 23.272.8 23.772.8 23.873.3 0.0087 Hypertension (%) 42.5 55.5 66.1 73.4 o0.001 a Obesity (%) 25.6 29.5 33.5 35.9 NS Smoker (%) 64.8 60.6 56.1 62.2 NS Drinker (%) 72.9 73.6 72.1 70.6 NS Diabetes (%) 7.8 7.1 9.6 17.7 o0.001 a Hypercholesterolemia (%) 21.1 25.2 21.5 24.0 NS Serum creatinine (mg/dl) 0.7870.13 0.7670.16 0.7670.14 0.8170.14 NS Serum total cholesterol (mg/dl) 191.9730.6 194.9728.3 191.9729.4 192.1734.4 NS Estimated 24-h urinary sodium excretion (meq/day) b 219.2760.0 209.5756.7 221.4760.3 224.7765.5 0.0311 Fasting blood sugar (mg/dl) 88.0724.1 93.9721.7 93.2728.7 96.9736.9 0.0042 Uric acid (mg/dl) 5.7671.2 5.7071.3 5.7071.4 5.8071.3 NS Serum albumin (g/dl) 4.4870.3 4.5170.3 4.5670.24 4.5070.3 0.0032 CCr/BSA (ml/min/1.73 m 2 ) 69.1713.8 67.7713.8 68.3714.5 65.8717.0 NS Estimated 24-h urinary potassium excretion (meq/day) b 58.8713.0 56.8712.1 58.1711.9 56.6712.1 NS BMI, body mass index; BP, blood pressure; BSA, body surface area; CCr, creatinine clearance; NS, not significant; UACR, urine albumin creatinine ratio. One-factor ANOVA. a w 2 test. b Estimated 24-h urinary sodium (potassium) excretion from the spot urine. excretion, fasting blood sugar, and serum albumin were associated with increasing levels of UACR in men. In addition to the risk factors detected in men, obesity, drinking, and uric acid were also associated with UACR levels in women (Table 4). To examine the contribution of risk factors in the presence of microalbuminuria, we used a multiple logistic regression analysis. Age, hypertension, and diabetes were independently associated with the presence of microalbuminuria in men. In women, age, hypertension, diabetes, estimated 24-h urinary sodium excretion, uric acid, and serum albumin were independently associated with microalbuminuria (Table 5). DISCUSSION In asymptomatic subjects of Japanese general population, microalbuminuria is prevalent across all age groups. The prevalence of microalbuminuria in all participants was 13.7%. This value is within the range of previous reports in Japan (13.2 19.6%). 11,12 However, our result is higher than those of other studies, for example, 7% in the Netherlands, 13 8.3% in National Health and Nutrition Examiniations Surveys, 14 and 6.0% in Australia. 15 Several factors including differences in the method to collect urinary samples and diagnosis criteria might affect the results in these studies. Another possible explanation for the higher rate of microalbuminuria in our study might be the age of subjects. Our target subjects (over 40 years) were older than those of other studies that include younger generation. Of note, Weir 16 has reported that the Asian incidence of microalbuminuria (40%) in hypertensive diabetic patients is substantially higher than what is seen in North America and Europe (16 29%). Therefore, there is a possibility that Asian population including Japanese might be susceptible to microalbuminuria as compared with the population in North America and Europe. Among all subjects, the prevalence of proteinuria (X1 þ ) by urine dipstick test was 4.4%. The prevalence of micro- or macroalbuminuria was 13.7 and 1.7%, respectively. The percentage of positive result by urine dipstick test for protein is about one-third of that of microalbuminuria. This result indicates that the sensitivity of urine dipstick test might not be enough to detect the renal glomerular damage at early stage. Accordingly, the measurement of microalbuminuria should be recommended as an indicator of glomerular injury. Kidney International (2006) 70, 751 756 753

o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e T Konta et al.: Microalbuminuria in Japanese population Table 4 Comparisons of baseline characteristics among quartile groups classified by UACR levels in women UACR quartile groups Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 P-value Number 331 314 320 322 Age (years) 57.979.5 63.479.0 64.479.8 67.779.5 o0.001 Systolic BP (mm Hg) 125.5714.7 132.2714.3 133.8715.6 139.5715.3 o0.001 Diastolic BP (mm Hg) 73.578.8 76.778.7 77.179.7 79.379.3 o0.001 BMI (kg/m 2 ) 23.273.0 23.373.2 23.473.4 24.673.8 o0.001 Hypertension (%) 37.5 51.6 59.1 73.3 o0.001 a Obesity (%) 25.9 28.0 27.5 43.1 o0.001 a Smoker (%) 11.8 6.7 5.9 6.2 0.0139 a Drinker (%) 20.2 13.1 13.4 10.6 0.0033 Diabetes (%) 2.4 5.4 5.9 14.9 o0.001 a Hypercholesterolemia (%) 39.9 39.5 38.8 43.5 NS Serum creatinine (mg/dl) 0.6170.09 0.5870.09 0.5770.10 0.6070.16 o0.001 Serum total cholesterol (mg/dl) 205.8732.3 206.4731.4 206.8729.2 208.3728.2 NS Estimated 24-h urinary sodium excretion (meq/day) b 192.4750.6 201.1750.5 200.8750.4 208.7756.3 0.0012 Fasting blood sugar (mg/dl) 84.5720.4 83.7726.4 86.9724.4 85.8735.6 NS Uric acid (mg/dl) 4.5571.0 4.4071.0 4.3271.0 4.6871.2 o0.001 Serum albumin (g/dl) 4.4770.23 4.5070.23 4.5270.23 4.5370.23 0.0015 CCr/BSA (ml/min/1.73 m 2 ) 71.6713.4 69.7714.1 69.5714.9 66.7717.1 o0.001 Estimated 24-h urinary potassium excretion (meq/day) b 54.4710.4 54.679.2 51.4710.5 53.879.8 NS BMI, body mass index; BP, blood pressure; BSA, body surface area; CCr, creatinine clearance; NS, not significant; UACR, urine albumin creatinine ratio. One-factor ANOVA. a w 2 test. b Estimated 24-h urinary sodium (potassium) excretion from the spot urine. Table 5 Multiple logistic regression model to predict microalbuminuria Odds ratio (95% CI) P-value Subjects Men (n=1013) Age (per 10-year increase) 1.273 (1.053, 1.539) 0.0126 Hypertension 2.072 (1.388, 3.091) o0.001 Diabetes 2.201 (1.354, 3.578) 0.0015 Serum albumin (per 0.3 g/dl increase) 1.042 (0.853, 1.272) NS Estimated 24-h urinary sodium excretion a (per 60 meq/day increase) 1.060 (0.890, 1.262) NS Women (n=1269) Age (per 10-year increase) 1.568 (1.285, 1.913) o0.001 Hypertension 2.062 (1.394, 3.052) o0.001 Obesity 1.251 (0.868, 1.805) NS Smoker 1.001 (0.481, 2.083) NS Drinker 1.318 (0.793, 2.189) NS Diabetes 3.663 (2.194, 6.116) o0.001 Estimated 24-h urinary sodium excretion a (per 60 meq/day increase) 1.255 (1.063, 1.482) 0.0074 Uric acid (per 1 mg/dl increase) 1.340 (1.145, 1.567) o0.001 Serum albumin (per 0.3 g/dl increase) 1.233 (1.031, 1.475) 0.0220 CI, confidence interval; NS, not significant. Estimated 24-h urinary sodium excretion from the spot urine. The prevalence of subjects with moderate or severe renal insufficiency (CCr o60 ml/min/1.73 m 2 ) among all subjects was 28.8% (CKD stages 3 5). This rate seems to be remarkably higher than those in National Health and Nutrition Examiniations Surveys III (8.8%), 14 in AusDiab Kidney study (11.2%) 15 and in Icelandic study (men 4.7%, women 11.6%). 17 However, Iseki et al. 18 reported that 25% of general population has reduced CCr (o50 ml/min/1.73 m 2 ) in Okinawa, Japan. Thus, our result seems to be consistent with previous report in Japan. Most of the recent studies apply Modification of Diet in Renal Disease equation to estimate glomerular filtration rate. However, Modification of Diet in Renal Disease equation requires racial factor that has not been established for Japanese population yet. Accordingly, we did not apply Modification of Diet in Renal Disease equation in this study. This point should be examined after the establishment of racial factor for Japanese. The prevalence of subjects with micro- or macroalbuminuria and more than 60 ml/min/1.73 m 2 CCr was 9.4% (CKD stages 1 2). Thus, in total, there were at least 38.2% of subjects with CKD (stages 1 5) in this population. The association between silent kidney disease and microalbuminuria has not been well depicted in Japan. Our study showed that among the subjects with reduced CCr (o60 ml/min/1.73 m 2 ), 20.5% of subjects had micro- or macroalbuminuria. It is noteworthy that the remaining 754 Kidney International (2006) 70, 751 756

T Konta et al.: Microalbuminuria in Japanese population o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e 79.5% of subjects with reduced CCr did not accompany microalbuminuria. Osicka and Comper 19 reported the existence of immunochemically nonreactive urinary albumin. Thus, some of these cases might have predominantly excreted an immunochemically nonreactive urinary albumin. However, in other cases, renal injury might not originate from vascular endothelial damage of glomerulus. The mechanism by which the renal insufficiency progresses in the latter population should be elucidated further. As risk factors for microalbuminuria, age, hypertension, smoking, obesity, hyperglycemia, non-caucasian ethnicity, and hypercholesterolemia were reported previously. 9,12,20 In our study, besides such conventional risk factors, the increase of sodium intake and uric acid was also associated with microalbuminuria in women. It has been reported that the excess of salt intake increases microalbuminuria in subjects with diabetes and hypertension. 21 However, the effect of salt intake on microalbuminuria in general population has not been well documented. Generally speaking, Japanese has a genetically salt-sensitive constitution 22 and higher sodium intake than Caucasians. In northern part of Japan including Takahata, the amount of daily salt intake is higher than the average amount in Japanese population. Under such a circumstance, the role of sodium intake for development of microalbuminuria might be strengthened. This point will be investigated in future. The relationship between uric acid and microalbuminuria in women is an interesting finding. Iseki et al. 23 have shown that increased serum uric acid level is associated with the higher risk of developing renal insufficiency, especially in women. In selected subjects such as diabetic and hypertensive patients, hyperuricemia is known to increase microalbuminuria. 24 However, the association between uric acid and microalbuminuria has not been confirmed in general population. In this study, uric acid was independently associated with increased level of microalbuminuria in asymptomatic women. Increased level of uric acid induces hypertension 25 and uric acid per se impairs vascular endothelial function. 26 These mechanisms might play a role for the development of microalbuminuria in this population. There are several limitations in our study. First, the measurement of microalbuminuria was carried out only once, which did not completely conform to the requirement of multiple urine collections for microalbuminuria. 27 Second, in this study, we used UACR with a single set of cutpoints for men and women. Although this cutpoint is widely accepted, it has a problem that incorrectly elevated albumin excretion might be obtained in subjects with a low creatinine excretion such as women or elderly. In lean Japanese population, there is a possibility that a single measurement of UACR might overestimate the prevalence of microalbuminuria. Another problem in using UACR is that the usage of a creatinine excretion in the denominator for UACR and body mass index might weaken the associations between them. Third, sodium intake was not assessed by 24-h urinary collection. These parameters must have some fluctuation depending on the survey time. Thus, it is desirable to repeat the measurement of these parameters. In addition, this study is a populationbased cross-sectional study. To confirm the importance of risk factors on renal outcome, it is necessary to follow-up the prognosis of each group in the future. The present study has shown that unrecognized kidney disease with microalbuminuria is prevalent across all age groups in general population in Japan. In addition to conventional risk factors, salt intake and increased level of uric acid might be associated with microalbuminuria in Japanese female population. Although albuminuria might be a sensitive indicator for glomerular injury, it should be noted that there are a substantial number of cases with renal insufficiency accompanying no microalbuminuria in this population. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study population This study is a part of the ongoing Molecular Epidemiological Study utilizing the Regional Characteristics of 21st Century Centers of Excellence Program in Japan. The aim of the present study is to determine the prevalence and risk factor analysis of microalbuminuria in general population in Japan. This study is a designincorporated baseline survey that consisted of a self-administered questionnaire on lifestyle, blood pressure measurement, anthropometrical measurement, and collections of blood and urine specimens from participants in the morning. The survey population in this study is the general population over 40 years in Takahata, Japan. In 2004, 1055 men and 1346 women (total, 2401) took part in the program and agreed to join the study. This study was approved by the institutional ethical committee. All participants gave written informed consent. Eighty subjects were excluded from the present analysis owing to their incomplete data. A total of 2321 subjects entered into the final statistical analysis as asymptomatic population. There were 1034 (44.5%) male and 1287 (55.5%) female subjects. Mean age was 64 years. Measurement Subjects used a self-reported questionnaire to document medical history, current medication, family history, clinical symptoms, smoking habits (current or non-smoker), and alcohol intake (current or non-drinker). Systolic and diastolic blood pressures were determined by using a mercury manometer, placed on the right arm of seated subjects who had rested in a sitting position for at least 5 min before the measurement. Measurement was performed twice, with the mean value used for statistical analysis. Hypertension was defined as systolic blood pressure X140 mm Hg and/or diastolic blood pressure X90 mm Hg, and/or the use of anti-hypertensive medication. Body mass index was calculated from weight and height measures as weight (kg) divided by the square of height (m 2 ). Obesity was specified as body mass index X25.0 kg/m 2 both in men and women. 28 Diabetes was ascertained either by self-reported physical diagnosis or by a measure of fasting blood sugar X126 mg/ dl or HbA1c value X6.5%. Hypercholesterolemia was ascertained by a measure of serum total cholesterol X220 mg/dl, and/or the use of anti-hyperlipidemic medication. UACR was calculated from a single-spot urine specimen collected in the morning. Urine albumin concentration was determined by an immunoturbidimetry. Kidney International (2006) 70, 751 756 755

o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e T Konta et al.: Microalbuminuria in Japanese population Microalbuminuria and macroalbuminuria were defined as UACR 30 300 and 4300 mg/g, respectively by the National Kidney Foundation. 29 Subjects were excluded when menstruation is present, because this makes albumin measurement unreliable. Proteinuria is defined by dipstick test of spot urine samples (positive; X1 þ ). Serum creatinine was measured by enzymatic method and CCr was estimated using the Cockcroft Gault equation, 30 including a correction factor of 0.85 for women and adjustment for body surface area. 31 Serum creatinine levels measured by enzymatic method show a 0.25 mg/dl decrease compared with levels measured by Jaffe s method. 18 To estimate CCr, we used adjusted serum creatinine values. CCr was categorized as renal insufficiency (o60 ml/min/1.73 m 2 ). 32 Twenty-four-hour urinary intake of sodium and potassium was estimated by Kawasaki s equation using a spot urine specimen. 33 Statistical analyses We used Student s t-test to evaluate differences in means and w 2 tests to evaluate differences in proportions. For comparison of mean values among quartiles, one-factor analysis of variance was used. To test the independent relationships between microalbuminuria and several continuous or categorical parameters, a multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to estimate odds ratio and 95% confidence intervals. We selected the representative variables that are significant in a univariate analysis and might be related with the induction of microalbuminuria: age, hypertension, obesity, diabetes, smoking, drinking, uric acid, serum albumin, and estimated 24-h urinary sodium excretion. Data are expressed as mean7s.d. All statistical analyses were performed using the software of Stat View version 5 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). A significant difference was defined as Po0.05. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study was supported in part by a grant-in-aid from the 21st Century Center Of Excellence Program of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science and a grant-in-aid for Scientific Research (No. 14770546) from the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports, and Culture, Japan. REFERENCES 1. Patient Registration Committee, Japanese Society for Dialysis Therapy. An overview of dialysis treatment in Japan (as of December 31, 2003). J Jpn Soc Dial Ther 2005; 38: 1 16. 2. Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation (HOPE) Study Investigators. Effects of ramipril on cardiovascular and microvascular outcomes in people with diabetes mellitus: results of the HOPE study and MICRO-HOPE substudy. Lancet 2000; 355: 253 259. 3. Parving HH, Lehnert H, Brochner-Mortensen J et al. The effect of irbesartan on the development of diabetic nephropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 870 878. 4. Mitch WE. Beneficial responses to modified diets in treating patients with chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 2005; (Suppl 94): S133 S135. 5. Hillege HL, Janssen WM, Bak AA et al. Microalbuminuria is common, also in a nondiabetic, nonhypertensive population, and an independent indicator of cardiovascular risk factors and cardiovascular morbidity. J Intern Med 2001; 249: 519 526. 6. Roest M, Banga JD, Janssen WM et al. Excessive urinary albumin levels are associated with future cardiovascular mortality in postmenopausal women. Circulation 2001; 103: 3057 3061. 7. Jager A, Kostense PJ, Ruhe HG et al. Microalbuminuria and peripheral arterial disease are independent predictors of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality, especially among hypertensive subjects: five-year follow-up of the Hoorn Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1999; 19: 617 624. 8. Mogensen CE. Microalbuminuria predicts clinical proteinuria and early mortality in maturity-onset diabetes. N Engl J Med 1984; 310: 356 360. 9. Yuyun MF, Adler AI, Wareham NJ. What is the evidence that microalbuminuria is a predictor of cardiovascular disease events? Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2005; 14: 271 276. 10. Shankar A, Klein R, Moss SE et al. The relationship between albuminuria and hypercholesterolemia. J Nephrol 2004; 17: 658 665. 11. Tomura S, Kawada K, Saito K et al. Prevalence of microalbuminuria and relationship to the risk of cardiovascular disease in the Japanese population. Am J Nephrol 1999; 19: 13 20. 12. Nakamura M, Onoda T, Itai K et al. Association between serum C-reactive protein levels and microalbuminuria: a population-based cross-sectional study in northern Iwate, Japan. Intern Med 2004; 43: 919 925. 13. de Jong PE, Hillege HL, Pinto-Sietsma SJ, de Zeeuw D. Screening for microalbuminuria in the general population: a tool to detect subjects at risk for progressive renal failure in an early phase? Nephrol Dial Transplant 2003; 18: 10 13. 14. Garg AX, Kiberd BA, Clark WF et al. Albuminuria and renal insufficiency prevalence guides population screening: results from the NHANES III. Kidney Int 2002; 61: 2165 2175. 15. Atkins RC, Polkinghorne KR, Briganti EM et al. Prevalence of albuminuria in Australia: the AusDiab Kidney Study. Kidney Int 2004; 66(Suppl 92): S22 S24. 16. Weir MR. Albuminuria predicting outcome in diabetes: incidence of microalbuminuria in Asia-Pacific Rim. Kidney Int 2004; 66(Suppl 92): S38 S39. 17. Viktorsdottir O, Palsson R, Andresdottir MB et al. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease based on estimated glomerular filtration rate and proteinuria in Icelandic adults. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2005; 20: 1799 1807. 18. Iseki K, Kinjo K, Iseki C, Takishita S. Relationship between predicted creatinine clearance and proteinuria and the risk of developing ESRD in Okinawa, Japan. Am J Kidney Dis 2004; 44: 806 814. 19. Osicka TM, Comper WD. Characterization of immunochemically nonreactive urinary albumin. Clin Chem 2004; 50: 2286 2291. 20. Verhave JC, Hillege HL, Burgerhof JG et al. Cardiovascular risk factors are differently associated with urinary albumin excretion in men and women. J Am Soc Nephrol 2003; 14: 1330 1335. 21. Vedovato M, Lepore G, Coracina A et al. Effect of sodium intake on blood pressure and albuminuria in type 2 diabetic patients: the role of insulin resistance. Diabetologia 2003; 47: 300 303. 22. Katsuya T, Ishikawa K, Sugimoto K et al. Salt sensitivity of Japanese from the viewpoint of gene polymorphism. Hypertens Res 2003; 26: 521 525. 23. Iseki K, Ikemiya Y, Inoue T et al. Significance of hyperuricemia as a risk factor for developing ESRD in a screened cohort. Am J Kidney Dis 2004; 44: 642 650. 24. Tseng CH. Correlation of uric acid and urinary albumin excretion rate in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus in Taiwan. Kidney Int 2005; 68: 796 801. 25. Mazzali M, Hughes J, Kim YG et al. Elevated uric acid increases blood pressure in the rat by a novel crystal-independent mechanism. Hypertension 2001; 38: 1101 1106. 26. Kang DH, Finch J, Nakagawa T et al. Uric acid, endothelial dysfunction and pre-eclampsia: searching for a pathogenetic link. J Hypertens 2004; 22: 229 235. 27. Levey AS, Eckardt KU, Tsukamoto Y et al. Definition and classification of chronic kidney disease: a position statement from Kidney Disease: improving global outcomes (KDIGO). Kidney Int 2005; 67: 2089 2100. 28. WHO/IASO/IOTF. The Asia-Pacific perspective: redefining obesity and its treatment. Health Communications Australia Pty Ltd, 2000, pp 15 21. 29. Keane WF, Eknoyan G. Proteinuia, albuminuria, risk, assessment, detection, elimination (PARADE): a position paper of the National Kidney Foundation. Am J Kidney Dis 1999; 33: 1004 1010. 30. Cockcroft DW, Gault MH. Prediction of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine. Nephron 1976; 16: 31 41. 31. DuBois D, DuBois EF. A formula to estimate the approximate surface area if height and weight be known. Arch Intern Med 1916; 17: 863 871. 32. National Kidney Foundation. K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines of chronic kidney disease: evaluation, classification, and stratification. Am J Kidney Dis 2002; 39(Suppl 2): S46 S75. 33. Kawasaki T, Itoh K, Uezono K et al. A simple method for estimating 24 h urinary sodium and potassium excretion from second morning voiding urine specimen in adults. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 1993; 20: 7 14. 756 Kidney International (2006) 70, 751 756