Camden E. Gaultney Year 12 IB Higher Level Psychology Ms. Cruz The 16th of April, 2012 Cognitive Level of Analysis - Cognition and Emotions The Learning Outcome #30: To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion [for example, MRI [magnetic resonance imaging] scans in memory research, fmru scans in decision-making research]. 22 mark - EAQ.
Paragraph #1: The Factors of Emotion: - Psychologist have long debated the role of physiological, cognitive and behavioral factors play in emotions. - Initially, emotions were believed to be a physiological experience, but research now suggest that emotions are an interaction of both physiological and cognitive factors. Antonio Damasio, 2000 - Emotion - According to Antonio Damasio [2000], emotions are physiological signals as a reaction to external stimuli and feelings [conscious interpretations of the emotion] arise when the brain interprets the stimuli. #1. The Cognitive Factors of Emotion: Richard Lazarus, 1982 - Appraisal Theory : - According to Richard Lazarus [1982] appraisal theory, cognitive factors can assess potential harm and modulate stress responses [in other words, the physiological and psychological reactions involved in the experience] - this occurs as there is a want to reduce unpleasant feelings - Appraisal can be seen as an evaluation of a situation [negative state relief model], including evaluation of one s psychological and material resources to cope with the stressful event.
Paragraph #2: Stanley Schachter, 1964 - Two-Factor Theory : - Stanley Schater [1964] was the first theorist to bring together the two elements of physiological arousal and cognition [which is known as the two-factor theory of emotion]. - For an emotion to be experiences, a physiological state of arousal is necessary and situational factors [the reason for the arousal] will then determine how an individual interprets and experiences the emotion. - While the strength of the physiological arousal will determine the strength of the emotion experienced, the situation will determine the type of emotion [these two factors are independent of each other but are both necessary for emotion to be experienced].
Paragraph #3: Schachter and Singer, 1962 - The Adrenaline Injection Experiment : #1. The Aim: - Schacter and Singer [1962]. - The aim of this classic study was to test the theory that an emotion is made up of cognitive appraisal [labeling the emotion] and physiological arousal [adrenaline and the physical changes it produces]. #2. The Procedure: - This was done by giving three groups of participants an adrenaline injection [epinephrine] and one group a placebo. - The participants were then put into situations designed to create an emotional response of anger or happiness. - Some participants were misled or given no information and the researchers predicted that they would blame their physical state on the situation, therefore reporting higher levels of emotion. - Other participants were told the effects of the injection and so would not blame the situation as they already knew why they felt that way. #3. The Results: - The findings were as predicted, indicating that if someone feels physiologically aroused and does not know why, they will look at their situation in order to label their emotion. - This supports the theory that emotions need both cognitive and physiological elements. Paragraph #4: Schachter and Singer, 1962 - The Adrenaline Injection Experiment : #4. The Evaluation: Critical Thinking: #1. Gender Bias: - While this was a well-controlled study with several conditions, the sample contained all male participants and is therefore not representative. - Therefore, the findings of this experiment cannot be generalized across genders as males may have different emotional reaction to females due to social norms and gender stereotyping. #2. Ethical Issues: - This experience is ethically questionable as the participants were injected with substances, deceived and put in a situation of distress as anger was induced. - In addition, it is not stated as to whether the participants were debriefed after the experiment. Paragraph #4: Schachter and Singer, 1962 - The Adrenaline Injection Experiment : #4. The Evaluation: Links to the Question: #1. Cognitive and Biological Factors: - Schachter and Singer were therefore able to conclude that a stimulus triggers a physiological response and at the same time the stimulus is interpreted in the brain taking into account previous experiences of similar situations. - The brain produces the action emotion that the person experiences [though cognitive factors] and the autonomic nervous system produces the degree to which that emotion is felt. #2. Errors in Attribution: - In addition, this study links to schemas in that the participants who felt physiologically aroused and did not know why, they looked at their situation in order to label their emotion.
Paragraph #5: Speisman et al., 1964 - The Genital Surgery Film Experiment : #1. The Aim: - Speisman et al. [1964]. - The aim of this experiment was to investigate if the participants emotional reactions could be manipulated. #2. The Procedure: - In this classic experiment, the participants were shown a film about an initiation ceremony involving unpleasant genital surgery. - The film was shown to three different group in three different conditions: the trauma condition [the soundtrack emphasized the pain and mutilation], the denial condition [the soundtrack sowed the participants as willing and happy] and the intellectualization condition [the soundtrack gave the anthropological interpretation of the ceremony. - The experiment deliberately manipulated the participants appraisal of the situation and evaluated the effect of the type of appraisal on their response. #3. The Results: - The results showed that participants reacted with more stress [more emotionally] to the to the trauma condition. - This supports Richard Lazarus s theory [may it is not the events themselves that elicit emotional stress, but the individual interpretation or appraisal of the events]. Paragraph #6: Speisman et al., 1964 - The Genital Surgery Film Experiment : #4. The Evaluation: Critical Thinking: #1. Historical Bias: - This is as, people are more exposed to violent situations in everyday life, such as through the media or films, which could effect the way that they respond to the situation [which, in turn, could alter the results]. #2. The Design of the Experiment: - This was a well-controlled lab experiment, including scientific measures of emotional reactions [such as heart rate and galvanic skin tests]. #3. Low Ecological Validity: - This experiment was done in a laboratory setting rather than in a natural setting and so brings up questions of artificiality. - The findings cannot be generalized as the films shown were an artificial test of emotional reactions and therefore may have not prompted the same response as a natural situation would. #4. Ethical Issues: - Furthermore, this experiment can be deems unethical as the participants were exposed to high levels of discomfort. Paragraph #6: Speisman et al., 1964 - The Genital Surgery Film Experiment : #4. The Evaluation: Links to the Question: #1. Social Learning Theory: - The participants are socially conditioned to act and react in the way the information was presented. #2. Schemas: - By using cognitive appraisal the participants are trying to analyze the situation and are using their formed schemas to understand the condition. #3. Social Categorization: - The participants have formed stereotypes which is the reason why during trauma condition a trigger is released in the brain in which prompts the need to act in an emotional way because it is appropriate. #4. Cognitive and Biological Factors: - The cognitive and biological aspects in the body work hand in hand and cannot be distinguished from each other. #5. Hormones: - How human beings tend to feel emotions is due to a trigger of hormones.
Paragraph #7: #2. The Biological Factors of Emotion: Brain, Memory and Emotion: - When assessing [thinking and perceiving a situation] individuals can be affected by biological factors. - Investigations into the role of emotion have focused primarily on the interaction of the amygdala [specialized for the processing of emotion] and the hippocampus [necessary for semantic and episodic memory]. - E. A. Phelps [2004] suggested that in emotional situations the amygdala can modulate memory encoding and storage of explicit memories [hippocampal dependent memories] so that emotional events receive priority. - [An example is autism - this condition illustrate the impact of brain damage on ability to decode emotions]. J. A. Easterbrook, 1959 - The Cue Utilization Theory: - The theory predicts that in situations with high levels of emotional arousal, people will tend to pay more attention to and encode details of the emotion arousing stimulus [central details] and not pay attention to the emotional arousal [peripheral details].
Paragraph #8: Le Doux, 1999 - The Theory of the Emotional Brain: - Human s emotional reactions are flexible due to evolution. - Learning to detect and respond to danger is important for survival [for example, an instant response is needed in dangerous situations]. - Humans have also evolved emotional feelings. - According to Le Doux [1999] there are two pathways of emotion in the brain: #1. The Short Route: - [Emotional stimulus, sensory thalamus, amygdala and emotional response]. - The amygdala reacts immediately to sensory input and activities response systems [for example, the physiological stress response: fight or flight ]. - Adrenaline [stress response, fight or flight - the short route is more time-efficient in and therefore better in life-threatening situations. #2. The Long Route: - [Emotional stimulus, sensory thalamus, sensory cortex, hippocampus, amygdala and emotional response]. - The sensory input goes via the sensory cortex to the hippocampus. - This route involves evaluation of the stimulus and consideration of an appropriate response. - This could link to the concept cognitive appraisal devised by Richard Lazarus [1975].
Paragraph #9: A Summary of the Interaction of Cognition and Emotion: - Cognitive and biological factors do, to a large extent, interact in emotion but in complex ways which are not yet well known. - Emotions may influence cognitive processes such as memory, and cognitive processes such as appraisal may influence emotions, but little is known about the exact workings of the physiological correlates of emotion. - The influence is often bidirectional and this has been explored within heath and abnormal psychology. Paragraph #9: A Summary of the Interaction of Cognition and Emotion: #1. Social Learning Theory: - Way that individuals deal with emotions can be genetically determined; aggression is an example of a behavior that is learnt through the modeling. #2. Social Factors: - Social factors [way humans interact with others in a social environment] have an impact on emotion. - Social cues: social identity theory and discrimination through in group, out group. - Human relationships - emotions are fundamental in decoding intention of others; these increase our social intelligence.