REPRESENTATION OF SOCIAL ACTORS IN THE PARTICIPATORY JOURNALISM PROCESS - A CASE FROM INDIA

REPRESENTATION OF SOCIAL ACTORS IN THE PARTICIPATORY JOURNALISM PROCESS - A CASE FROM INDIA SUPRIYA RAKESH Indian Institute f Management, Bangalre India supriya.rakesh@iimb.ernet.in RAHUL DE' Indian Institute f Management, Bangalre India rahul@iimb.ernet.in Abstract Recent decades have seen the emergence f participatry jurnalism - as a mvement within and as an alternative t traditinal, mainstream media. Largely fuelled by the widespread use f internet technlgy and scial media, this shift is tuted t have blurred the traditinal rles and bundaries in the jurnalistic prcess. The aim f this research paper is t critically examine the representatins f rles and relatins between scial actrs in the rganised participatry jurnalism prcess. Applying a lens f identity theries, we use publicly available data frm a single case t draw an interpretatin. The findings shw that traditinal identities and scial differences are perpetuated in representatins f the actrs as they ccupy cmplementary rles, frm separate identity categries and partake in hierarchical relatins. The findings bring ut aspects f inclusin and exclusin, cmplementary rles, pwer differences, asymmetrical relatins, and exchange f scial and material resurces. Keywrds: participatry jurnalism, pwer relatins, rles, exclusin, identity 1. Intrductin Recent decades have seen the emergence f participatry jurnalism - as a mvement within as well as an alternative t traditinal, mainstream media. This mvement has been largely fuelled by the widespread use f cmmunicatin technlgy and internetbased scial media. The terms participatry and citizen jurnalism are smetimes used interchangeably and d nt have definitive bundaries. They have been defined as a range f webbased practices whereby rdinary users engage in jurnalistic practices [Gde 2009, Page 1

p. 1288] and include the evlving spectrum f user cntributins t news cntent [Allan and Thrsen 2009]. Bradly, they refer t initiatives by rdinary citizens in prducing, sharing and cnsuming news. New frms f technlgy have led t these new ways f practising jurnalism and prducing cntent. By prviding alternatives t and cntesting dminant news flws, this shift is suppsed t have blurred the traditinal rles and bundaries in the jurnalistic prcess. Participatry jurnalism has als been psited t negate the gatekeeping rle played traditinally by jurnalists, thrugh cntrl and influence ver what is presented as news [Lewis, Kaufhld and Lasrsa 2010]. Thus, it is claimed t be changing the pwer dynamics between prducers and cnsumers f news. Mainstream media have als gradually pened their gates t this new frm f jurnalism. A number f nt-fr-prfit and alternative media rganisatins have emerged which aim t channelise this mvement fr cmmunity develpment [Snwalkar 2009]. Such rganised players may prvide resurces, technlgy platfrms and/r access t cmmunicatin media, which enables citizens t express their stries, r cmmunicate n pertinent issues. Thus, participatry jurnalism has been represented in media and sciety in largely psitive terms - as enabling and empwering citizens t cntribute t news discurse and participate in jurnalistic practices. This frm f jurnalism is enabled by ICTs which, accrding t Shirky, allw rdinary citizens t use relatively inexpensive mdes f dcumentatin and transmissin t define and create news frm stries they find imprtant r interesting [Shirky 2008]. These changes in the pattern f jurnalistic prcess, as well as the nrms and values gverning it are largely represented as agents f scial change [Gde 2009]. Hwever, nt much attentin has been paid t the identities f the actrs invlved in this prcess, and the implicatins f these identities. The aim f this research paper is t critically examine the representatin f scial actrs in the participatry jurnalism prcess, with a fcus n their rles, relatins and identities. The mtivatin fr this study is t examine whether such representatins perpetuate prevalent hierarchies and distrtins fr the actrs invlved in this prcess. Hw d actrs assign and accept certain rles and hw d these rles relate t their persnal identities? Wh are included and wh are excluded? What is the nature f pwer relatins between the actrs, and what are the implicatins f these relatins? What scial, psychlgical and material aspects define the terms f their mutual participatin in this prcess? Here, we make a distinctin between rganised participatry jurnalism, structured thrugh frmal rganisatin, prgrammes, and prcesses; and unrganised user-driven cntent, fr instance - thrugh blgs r the scial media [Gde 2009]. Our fcus here is n the frmer. A frmal rganisatin is likely t have a specific set f actrs and a well-defined cntext which influences the behaviurs f actrs embedded within. The bjective here is nt t bring ut differences between mainstream and participatry jurnalism, r t evaluate the effectiveness f either. Inherent in ur research bjective is ur fcus n the representatin f the scial actrs; hw these influence and are influenced by their identities [Breakwell 1986]. We are nt examining the actrs experiences r their perceptins f their rles, relatins, r identities; but reading hw these are represented in the media and public dmain. The research aims are infrmed by critical thery, which recgnises the histricity f actrs, their embeddedness within scial structures, distrtin, and cnflict in sciety, and the ptential fr scial change, as reflected in IS research [Orlikwski and Barudi 1991; Ngwenyama and Lee 1997]. Page 2

We apprach the data with an identity thery lens, integrating key theretical perspectives n identity structures and prcesses. As participatry jurnalism harnesses cmmunicatin technlgies fr scial develpment, the study als falls bradly under Infrmatin and Cmmunicatin Technlgies (ICT) fr develpment research. Identity perspectives have been seldm used t examine issues in ICT fr develpment, with a few ntable exceptins (such as [Bailey and Ngwenyama 2010; Heeks 2010]). This study is based n a single case f an rganisatin wrking in the citizen jurnalism space in India. Citizen jurnalism is a mre recent phenmenn in India. Overall a media-rich natin, India is characterised by a c-existence f bradly three sectins f sciety: glbalised, develping, and extremely pr [Snwalkar 2009]. There are large-scale scial inequalities based n gender, religin, caste, and regin. In the cntext f citizen jurnalism, increased citizen participatin is uneven; n accunt f differences in infrmatin cnnectivity, skill and initiative. Only the glbalised citizens enjy access t infrastructure needed fr citizen jurnalism - such as media channels, technlgy, and internet-based scial media. In the Indian cntext, citizen jurnalism behaviur is als cnstrained by birth int a particular caste r cmmunity, gegraphical lcatin, scial standing, educatin and language skills [Thmas 2011]. The Indian situatin, thus, prvides an interesting cntext fr the study. The case selected fr study is Vide Vlunteers, which describes itself as a cmmunity media rganisatin and perates the India Unheard prgramme in the backward regins f India. Under this prgramme, citizen jurnalists are selected frm lcal cmmunities and trained in vide-jurnalism skills. They in turn prduce vide cntent based n lcal issues and stries - these vides are then shared publicly thrugh varius channels (including the Vide Vlunteers website lcated at videvlunteers.rg). After abut a decade f activities, Vide Vlunteers has trained ver 300 cmmunity citizen jurnalists wh are lcated in ver 1000 villages acrss India. The vlunteers screen their films in lcal cmmunities and als share them with mainstream media fr bradcast. The sciety claims that in the last tw years ver half f its cntent has been used by mainstream media. Data generatin fr this study was frm infrmatin available in the public dmain - mainly the rganisatin s website and cverage f the rganisatin s activities in print and ther media. Such cntent can be viewed as scial representatin f the rganisatin and its wrk, generated purpsefully by the rganisatin, fr cmmunicatin with the external wrld [Mscvici 2000]. It is the medium thrugh which the rganisatin represents itself symblically t the larger sciety [Hirschheim and Newman 1991]. Our fcus was n the rganisatin s representatins f scial actrs in this prcess. The analysis is based n an appreciatin f bth cntext and prcess, with an institutinal (scilgical) as well as an individual (psychlgical) fcus. Qualitative textual analysis was used t develp themes, and then grup these themes int brader categries. The findings bring ut aspects f inclusin and exclusin, cmplementary rles, pwer differences, asymmetrical relatins, and exchange f scial and material resurces. The flw f this paper is as fllws. In the first sectin, we discuss Critical research philsphy which infrms the aims f this study, and ur rle and psitin as researchers. Then, we briefly utline the methds fllwed fr data generatin and interpretatin. This is fllwed by a discussin f theretical perspectives adpted. Then, we present a detailed discussin f the themes, based n the interpretatin and analysis. Finally, we prvide cncluding remarks and pint t future research pssibilities leading frm this wrk. Page 3

2. Research Apprach In this sectin, we discuss ur research philsphy, explicate the rle f the researcher, and utline the methds fllwed in generating and analysing the data. 2.1 Critical Research Philsphy We apprach this study with a Critical research lens. In Critical scial thery, scial reality is seen as histrically cnstituted and cnstructed by human actrs, wh attach meaning t this reality. There is always a ptential fr recnstructin f this reality and change in scial cnditins. This ptential is hwever cnstrained by varius frms f authrity and dminatin - ecnmic, scial, plitical, and cultural [Habermas 1979]. Critical scial thery emphasises the embeddedness f scial actrs in their cntext. This cntext cmprises the rganisatinal as well as the larger scicultural cntext. The sciety and rganisatin give meaning t the actrs rles, relatinships, and actins, and als define the pwer, authrity, and status relatinships between them. The cntext is defined by nt just the present state but als the histry f the scial institutins. Hwever, the actrs als have the vlitin t accept, reject, r mdify these nrms. They can exercise their cnstrained will t make chices and take actins which in turn shape the cntext [Ngwenyama and Lee 1997]. In this study, we adpt this philsphy t recgnise hw the histricity and cntext f scial actrs, their sci-ecnmic psitin, and their persnal and scial identities shape their rles and relatins in the participatry jurnalism prcess. When citizen jurnalism is rganised under an entity with cntrl mechanisms and resurces, d the traditinal pwer structures remain r des the participatry prcess reduce these differences and prvide vice t all actrs? With reference t the framewrk fr critical methdlgy prpsed by Habermas [1968], ur knwledge interest in this case is bth practical and emancipatry i.e. the gal is t better understand scial behaviur and relatins, as well as critically reflect upn scial distrtins and pwer differences. 2.2. Rle f the Researcher The critical researcher is inherently implicated in the bjectives f the research. The researcher des nt claim t be neutral - there is a definite value psitin and a gal f emancipatin and scial imprvement. Cnflict is seen as inherent t scial systems - the research attempts t reveal these cnflicts, cntradictins, and distrtins; and t identify and critique unjust r inequitable cnditins with the gal f emancipatin f scial actrs [Ngwenyama and Lee 1997]. Varius frms f dminatin and alienatin are smetimes s deep-rted that the scial actrs, cnstrained by their histry, cntext, r beliefs, may nt even be cnscius f their existence. Hence the rle f a critical researcher ges beynd understanding r interpreting the actr s sense-making f his r her life-wrld [Ngwenyama 1991]. The aim is t uncver hidden cnflicts and distrtins which are typically nt accessible thrugh accunts f participants wh may be unable t perceive r describe these circumstances. It therefre invlves a mre active engagement with the data, and ging beynd the statements and representatins f the actrs t draw critical inferences [Orlikwski and Barudi 1991]. These interpretatins are inevitably guided by the researcher s wn backgrund, values, and psitin, and by the theretical framewrk guiding the study. As Page 4

researchers, we are aware that ur identities as urban, educated Indians and ur respective prfessinal backgrunds influence ur research aims, hw we see the data, and what we see in the data [Masn 2002]. Als, while we may cmment n pwer differences in scial relatins, we are aware f ur wn membership in the affluent class f sciety, which may limit ur empathetic understanding f issues and cncerns f the less privileged. Als, we d nt cmment n the verall impact f citizen jurnalism r f this particular rganisatin (psitive r negative), but recgnise the cmplexity f develpmental prcesses and the lngitudinal nature f their impact. The aim f this paper is therefre nt t evaluate the utcmes f participatry jurnalism; we fcus n the representatins f the prcess and the participants. 2.3. Methds This study is based n a single case f an rganisatin wrking in the citizen jurnalism space in India - Vide Vlunteers. The rganisatin runs a prgramme called the India Unheard thrugh which it selects citizen jurnalists frm lcal cmmunities, trains them in vide-based media prductin and prvides systematic expsure t their wrk thrugh the wrld-wide web and thrugh partnership with ther rganisatins and media channels. The interpretatin is fcussed n representatin f the actrs assciated with this rganisatin and its prgramme. Our data generatin was thrugh secndary surces i.e. text related t the rganisatin and its prgramme published n the rganisatin s website and in media releases. The material chsen as data are representatins prduced by the rganisatin as a grup, and the medium thrugh which it represents itself symblically t the larger wrld [Hirschheim and Newman 1991]. We chse nt t interview the actrs in the case study as ur fcus is n representatins f actrs invlved in participatry jurnalism, with an emphasis n hw their rles, relatins, and identities are represented in the public dmain. As explained abve, hidden cnflicts and distrtins are nt accessible thrugh participant accunts. The inquiry was fcussed n rganisatinal structures and prcesses, scial relatins, and symblic interactins between the actrs [Ngwenyama and Lee 1997]. Cntent relevant t the research aims was identified, pertaining t the rganisatin s missin and plans, the actrs invlved, details f the citizen jurnalism prgramme India Unheard, prcess f recruiting and training citizen jurnalists, prfiles and wrk f citizen jurnalists, and awards and recgnitin (refer t Appendix fr specific surces). The interpretatin is based n qualitative textual analysis f the articles/cntent identified. Our first step was a general search fr material abut Vide Vlunteers frm the website cntents and links prvided therein. Based n an initial reading, and ntetaking, we first frmed ur interpretatin f the rganisatin, the prcesses, and the key actrs. Then, we identified specific articles and website cntent fr a mre fcussed textual analysis. The principles f cntextuality and suspicin were fllwed while cnducting the analysis, in the traditin f hermeneutic case research [Klein and Myers 1999]. Then, we develped ur analysis arund the rles and relatins f the key actrs. The prcess began with reading and detailed ntes. Nting was in the frm f free textual analysis and included descriptive as well as cnceptual cmments n the data. Further ntes and cmments were added with each subsequent reading. Then, the initial ntes were transfrmed int themes by fcussing n discrete chunks f text. The themes aim t capture the essential quality f what is fund in the text. Page 5

These emergent themes were then examined fr patterns and cnnectins, keeping in mind the research questin. Similar themes were gruped tgether t frm a cluster, defined by a higher-level super-rdinate theme. These themes are elabrated in sectin 6 n Interpretatin and Analysis. Finally, the super-rdinate themes were mved t a higher level f abstractin invking mre psychlgical and cnceptual terminlgy (frm identity thery) t arrive at the prcess framewrk prpsed in sectin 7. In ding this, we examined the chice f language and metaphrs as symbls [Hirschheim and Newman 1991]. Our lens was infrmed by theretical perspectives elabrated in the fllwing sectin, t explre actrs identity issues. In the findings, we aim fr theretical rather than empirical generalisatin [Walsham 1995]. The purpse is t prvide insights based n ur interpretatin f a single case, and use these t draw cnclusins abut the likely internal distrtins within a participative prcess. 3. Theretical Perspectives We draw upn identity thery perspectives as a theretical framewrk t cnduct the analysis. There are several cnceptualisatins f identity in scilgy and scial psychlgy. Three majr ways in which identity is therised are: scial identity thery, which emphasises identificatin with scial grups and categries [Tajfel and Turner 1985]; identity thery [Stryker 1968], which emphasises identificatin with scial rles and psitins; and identity prcess thery [Breakwell 1986], which examines cnstructin and maintenance f identities ver time. 3.1. Scial Identity Thery Accrding t the scial identity perspective [Hgg 2000], individuals categrise themselves (and thers) as members f scial grups and have multiple identities based n their identificatin with each f these grups. An individual s scial identity is therefre a sum ttal f identificatins with categries such as gender, ethnicity, race, and ccupatin, varying in terms f salience t the self [Tajfel 1982]. Salience f a scial identity depends upn separateness, clarity, and distinctiveness f the scial grup [Tajfel and Turner 1985]. The tw imprtant prcesses invlved in scial identity frmatin are: selfcategrisatin and scial cmparisn. The frmer leads t increase in perceived similarity between neself and in-grup members, and perceived differences between neself and ut-grup members. The latter prcess is geared twards self-enhancing utcmes, by fcussing n dimensins which result in psitive evaluatin f in-grup [Hgg and Abrams 1990; Hgg 2000]. The basic need fr psitive self-esteem will induce individuals t favur their in-grups in mst cmparisns with ut-grups. Overall, such scial categrisatin results in salient grup bundaries, which limits cmmunicatin and scial integratin and fsters cnflict amng grups [Abrams and Hgg 2004]. A persn's identificatin with a scial grup can have imprtant cnsequences fr behaviur, such as: cmmitment and lyalty t the grup, attractin t its members, cnfrmity t the grup nrms, engagement in activities cngruent with scial identity, reinfrcement f the grup's values and practices, and the tendency t attribute prttypical characteristics f the grup t neself. This is a cnsequence f depersnalisatin i.e. seeing neself as an in-grup prttype rather than a unique individual [Abrams and Hgg 2004]. It has been fund that even when membership is f a lw status grup, if identificatin is strng, the individual participates actively in Page 6

grup culture and distinguishes ne s wn grup frm ut-grups [Stets and Burke 2000]. 3.2. Identity Thery Accrding t Identity thery, identities are parts f the individual self and are cmpsed f meanings that peple attach t the multiple rles they play in highly differentiated cntemprary scieties. Scial rles are characterised by pre-determined, scially structured respnsibilities, and the behaviurs apprpriate t such rles are culturally determined. The self is seen as a hierarchical cllectin f identities, based n ccupying different scial rles [Stryker 1968]. The extent f identificatin with each rle can vary acrss individuals. The underlying cgnitive prcess is self-verificatin i.e. seeing neself in terms f the rle. These rle identities influence behaviur as each rle has a set f assciated prestructured meanings, expectatins, and behaviur standards related t ccupying a psitin in sciety [Stryker and Burke 2000]. This thery psits that peple devte cnsiderable time and energy t cnstructing and maintaining their identities, by engaging in self-identifying behaviurs and activities, especially fr valued rles and identities [Burke 1991]. As a result, the persn behaves in accrdance with the identity standards assciated with the rle. The rle is given meaning thrugh cunter-rles, cmplementary but dissimilar - such as student-teacher r emplyer-emplyee. Rle expectatins are defined and mutually negtiated with these cunter-rles [Stets and Burke 2003]. 3.3. Identity Prcess Thery The Identity prcess thery [Breakwell 1986] builds n the scial identity perspective t explre hw an individual cnstructs and maintains identity ver time. This is achieved thrugh cmplementary psychlgical prcesses whereby new infrmatin (such as peple, events, and ideas) is accmmdated within the identity structure; and meaning and value is cnferred upn the identity cntents. These prcesses are als guided by certain mtivatinal principles, such as individuals desire fr cntinuity and distinctiveness in identity, self-efficacy and selfesteem, sense f belnging, meaning, and verall psychlgical cherence [Vignles et al. 2006]. Thugh the individual has agency in identity cnstructin, these prcesses are subject t scietal cnstraints and are influenced by dminant scial representatins [Breakwell 1993]. 3.4. Scial Representatins Scial representatins are cgnitive structures which facilitate cmmunicatin between members f a cllective as a result f their shared r cnsensual frm. Fr the individual, they give meaning t new experiences, peple, and events by setting them in a familiar cntextual frame [Mscvici 1988; 1998]. A grup (r multiple grups) may be the prducers and/r the bjects f a particular representatin. The frm f such representatins will then serve grup bjectives including engendering a sense f grup identity and defining the bundaries f such identity. Intergrup pwer differentials have an imprtant impact upn the develpment f scial representatins, and their acceptance in larger sciety [Mscvici 2000]. The relatinship between scial identity and scial representatin is thus dialectical - their influences n each ther are reciprcal [Breakwell 1993]. Page 7

3.5. Integrating the Theries Researchers, such as Hgg, Terry, and White [1995], and Stets and Burke [2000], have discussed linkages between identity and scial identity perspectives, t establish a mre integrated view f self. Bth perspectives have meta-theretical similarities as they emphasise the scially cnstructed self, linking individual behaviur and identity structure with scial structure [Burke 2004]. The main differences between the tw, ther than their disciplinary rts, are the bases f identity - scial categries and scial rles i.e. wh ne is and what ne des [Hgg, Terry and White 1995]. In a cmplex sciety, an individual simultaneusly belngs t multiple grups and ccupies multiple rles. In an rganisatin, an actr s identity may be linked t a rle, as mutually negtiated with cunter-rles, as well as t membership f a grup, defined thrugh prttypical features f grup members. Cmbining these tw lenses t examine the self can prvide us with a mre general thery f the self [Stets and Burke 2000]. The three identity perspectives discussed here have much (unexplred) ptential fr integratin. In this study, we draw upn all three identity perspectives in interpreting (i) hw rle-based and categry-based identities interact; (ii) the prcess and flw f such interactin; (iii) hw actrs identities influence each ther and hw existing identities influence new anchrs, identities, and representatins. We see this theretical framewrk as cmpatible with ur critical lens, as identity theries are, in essence, a thery f scial understanding and change [Hrnsey 2008]. They explicate the cnstraints n actrs behaviur and chices, n accunt f their psitin in the scial hierarchy and dminant scial influence prcesses. Scial Identity thery was the first scial-psychlgical thery t acknwledge that grups ccupy different levels in a hierarchy f status and pwer. It als emphasises that intergrup behaviur and pssibilities fr change, especially fr lw-status grups, depend n peple s ability t be critical f and t see alternatives t the status qu [Hrnsey 2008]. Identity Prcess thery als recgnises that identity is created within a particular scial cntext and lcated within a specific histrical perid, and that changes in the structure r prcesses f the scial cntext will call frth changes in identity [Breakwell 2010]. 3.6. ICT fr Develpment The case subject f this study is an rganisatin that deplys cmmunicatin technlgies fr scial develpment, and thus the study als falls under the brad rubric f Infrmatin and Cmmunicatin Technlgies (ICT) fr develpment research. This dmain f research has examined issues f hw ICTs are intrduced and diffused in different scieties, hw they are mdified and absrbed, and hw they enable transfrmatin in plitical, ecnmic, and scial spheres [Avgeru 2008]. This research has als cnsidered, t a limited extent, the issues f identities and rles f the grups f participants in varius ICT deplyment situatins. Of nte are research that has cnsidered caste and ethnic identities in shaping hw technlgies are absrbed and shaped fr use [Sreekumar 2008; De 2009]; and hw the exgenusly defined identities are negtiated, r nrmatively need t be negtiated, fr effective develpment [Heeks 2010]. The pertinent issues f hw identities interact and hw they influence each ther are, hwever, nt cnsidered in this literature and remain a gap. There is a gap in the literature f ICT fr develpment regarding the rle and influence f identities in the effectiveness f ICT deplyment. We address this gap in this paper. We use the framewrk f identity thery (based n a synthesis f the three theretical perspectives n identity discussed abve) t examine a participatry Page 8

develpmental prcess that relies n infrmatin technlgy. We cnclude that identity thery prvides a valuable framewrk fr the analysis f actrs rles and relatins, and issues f internal hierarchies and exclusin in ICT fr develpment prjects. 4. Interpretatin and Findings The key actrs in the rganised participatry jurnalism prcess, in this case, include the rganisatin s funder and trustees, team f emplyees, citizen jurnalists (referred t in the rganisatin s vcabulary as cmmunity crrespndents ), media and scial sectr partners, and the larger media audiences and cmmunities. The participatry jurnalism prcess as represented in the media can be seen as generated by grups f actrs invlved in the prcess. This is als true f representatins f a specific rganisatin r prgramme, such as Vide Vlunteers. Such representatins are bund t be impacted by grups identity, functins, histricity, and pwer differences [Mscvici 2000; Breakwell 1993]. In ur analysis, we have fcussed n the representatin f tw sets f actrs - the funder and emplyees, and the cmmunity crrespndents. The scial and rganisatinal cntext defines the pssibilities f actin fr these human actrs - it can either enable r cnstrain the actrs behaviurs. In this case, the cntext includes the rganisatin's plicies, prcesses, nrms, and resurces; as well as scial structures, institutins, practices, and values [Ngwenyama and Lee 1997]. The analysis is rganised under three brad thematic categries - Actrs: Rles and Identities, Status & Pwer Relatins, and Terms f the Exchange. Each f these categries cmprises descriptive themes. The discussin is supprted by quting relevant parts f the data, and by bringing in relevant cncepts frm thery. 4.1. Actrs: Rles and Identities Actrs identities can be based in grups as well as rles. An individual can identify self thrugh membership in a categry, where all members are seen as having similar characteristics and attitudes as well as thrugh ccupatin f a distinct rle, the meaning f which is negtiated with cunter-rles [Stets and Burke 2000]. 4.1.1. The Organisatin and the Cmmunity There appear t be tw distinct grups r categries which define the identities f actrs invlved in this case: the rganisatin and the cmmunities it wrks with. In the rganisatinal representatins, the frmer grup includes the funder, trustees, staff specialising in media, training, administratin, and ther functins, and even student interns. The Team sectin f Vide Vlunteers website includes this rganisatin grup; it excludes the citizen jurnalists wh perfrm the cre wrk f media prductin. Click here t read mre abut ur staff, bard f directrs, ambassadrs, as well as interns and vlunteers. The team at Vide Vlunteers all share the same visin t empwer the wrld's prest citizens t becme players in the glbal media revlutin. (Descriptin f Team n the website) The persnal identities f the funder and emplyees - their mtivatins and bjectives - seem t be intimately linked with that f the rganisatin i.e. the rganisatinal purpse and identity. These individuals make majr decisins n the prgramme, represent it t the utside wrld, and maintain its external netwrks. Majrity f cntent in the public dmain which describes the purpse, functining, and impact f the rganisatin is authred by members f this grup i.e. it is the dminant prducer f rganisatinal representatins. Nte the usage f wrds we and Vide Page 9

Vlunteers t refer t ideas f and actins taken by this grup; and references t the crrespndents in the third persn. In India, we have created the largest, mst diverse netwrk f salaried Cmmunity Prducers in the wrld. (Descriptin f India Unheard prgramme) T meet its bjectives in the participatry jurnalism prcess, this rganisatin seeks t wrk in and fr certain lcal cmmunities. The funders/ administratrs select sme members f this cmmunity t play the rle f cmmunity crrespndents. These individuals are identified with the cmmunities they are drawn frm. The rganisatin grup (funders, staff, and interns) are described as the 'team' and the citizen jurnalists are referred t as the 'netwrk' r ur netwrk f cmmunity crrespndents. Frm the rganisatin s perspective, the identities f these crrespndents are linked t these cmmunities, and are distinct frm thse f the rganisatin r its funders. We cllabrate with disadvantaged cmmunities t develp jurnalistic, critical thinking and creative skills. They in turn use these skills t articulate their slutins... (Missin statement) A few ex-cmmunity crrespndents have been prvided staff psitins and included in the rganisatinal grup; hwever as a whle, they frm a separate categry in the rganisatinal representatins. 4.1.2. The Benefactrs & Beneficiaries Rles are usually defined in relatin t, and given meaning thrugh, the presence f cmplementary cunter-rles [Burke 1991]. Actrs then incrprate the identity standards assciated with their rles int their self-definitin. The actrs identifying with the scial grups rganisatin and cmmunity seem t be playing distinct, mutually cmplementary rles in the representatin f participatry jurnalism prcess: that f the benefactrs and the beneficiaries. The rganisatin represents itself as aiming t help the backward cmmunities thrugh different means - media skills and training, financial resurces, and a vice. But, Jessica Mayberry and her team f Vide Vlunteers have dne just that they armed lcals with a vide camera and made jurnalists ut f day laburers, rickshaw drivers, and wmen frm an India Unheard. (Newspaper article, http://www.videvlunteers.rg/media/print-articles/) The bjectives and missin f the rganisatin are described thrugh frequent usage f wrds such as prviding, teaching, empwering, enabling, and ffering, suggesting a relatinship where ne party gives and the ther receives. It is implied that the rganisatinal grup has the necessary resurces, skills, and knw-hw and is in a psitin t help the ther, less advantaged grup representing the cmmunity. Vide Vlunteers has initiated and sustained a glbal cmmunity media mvement, which has empwered peple by giving them a vice, training them t use it, and enabled them t take actin twards scial change. (Sectin n Our Impact n website) The representatins als depict the crrespndents then helping r impacting their lcal cmmunities, enabled t d s by the skills and pprtunities prvided by the rganisatin. The cmmunities are therefre the ultimate beneficiaries, and the rganisatinal impact n them is achieved thrugh empwering the crrespndents. Page 10

4.1.3. The Mainstream, Alternate, and Unheard The actrs are als represented by their psitin in the larger scial cntext, and in relatin t ther imprtant actrs in the jurnalism prcess i.e. the audiences and ther media rganisatins. Again, there is a prcess f categrisatin, where grups are defined by attributes, in relatin t and in ppsitin t each ther i.e. ne is defined by what the ther is nt [Tajfel 1982]. The discurse n participatry jurnalism has frequent references t mainstream and alternate media - the frmer referring t traditinal media channels such as televisin and print; and the latter referring t newer cmmunity-riented r scialnetwrking media. Alternate media builds n new pprtunities prvided by develpment f ICTs and their applicatin twards the demcratisatin f media [Shirky 2008; Gde 2009]. It is understd that the frmer enjys access t a wider audience, glbally. In the rganisatin s representatins, the s-called backward cmmunities and crrespndents are ften referred t as the unheard, signifying an absence f vice in the traditinal, mainstream media. These are the sectins f sciety referred t as the prest f pr in Snwalkar s [2009] analysis f media access in India. The prgramme is itself is referred t as the India Unheard initiative. This new initiative is cnstituted f a netwrk f Cmmunity Crrespndents wh are trained t tell unique stries abut their wn cmmunities; stries which have until nw been left untld. (Descriptin f India Unheard) Vide Vlunteers describes itself as a cmmunity media rganisatin, thus representing itself as a pineer f the alternate prcess - whereby it gives an pprtunity fr the unheard t vice their lcal issues and cncerns. It accmplishes this by frming partnerships and alliances with mainstream media and ther alternate media participants, including internatinal rganisatins. Vide Vlunteers seeks t ensure that these unheard vices are heard by the mainstream, i.e. glbalised audience [Snwalkar 2009] wh wuld therwise nt have an access t these stries. By feeding this cmmunity-prduced cntent t natinal and internatinal utlets, such as mainstream televisin channels and scial netwrking sites, India Unheard links rural cmmunities with a truly glbal audience... Vide Vlunteers ffers the glbal audience a clear windw int the real India... (Descriptin f The Mdel f India Unheard) It appears that this mainstream is described in ppsitin t the unheard. The latter are again described thrugh vcabulary such as backward, remte, rural; the mainstream is identified as develped, technlgy-savvy, scial media-savvy, and elite. Thus the alternate, cmmunity-riented, activist, scially cnscius, can be viewed as playing the rle f a mediatr between the mainstream and unheard, bridging the scalled gap between the tw and prviding them access t ne anther. 4.2. Status & Pwer Relatins The dialectical relatinship between scial structures and scial identities makes these identities rigid and resistant t change [Breakwell 2001]. In this theme, we discuss the relatins between the actrs in the representatin f the participatry jurnalism prcess with a fcus n status and pwer. We explre hw the scial status differences and pre-existing (r traditinal) identities f the actrs cntinue int the representatin f cmplementary rles, and translate int asymmetry in their relatins in the internal rganisatin and prcess. This hierarchy f rles and relatins then enters the rganisatinal representatins, n accunt f pwer differential between the actrs. Page 11

4.2.1. Backgrund and Scial Status The funders and staff (representing the rganisatin) and the crrespndents (representing the cmmunity) cme frm significantly different sci-ecnmic strata and therefre enjy very different scial status. Thus, they histrically identify with different scial categries ccupying unequal psitins in scial hierarchy [Tajfel 1982]. I refer t these identities, based n the scial structure they were brn int, as traditinal identities. The rganisatin describes itself as an internatinal medial rganisatin. The funder and bard f trustees belng t the western wrld (majrity frm the U.S.), and have prfessinal experience and accmplishments in renwned internatinal rganisatins in the media r scial sectr. The emplyees are Indians - mstly urban, highly educated with degrees in media r scial wrk frm well-knwn institutins, and frm relatively affluent sci-ecnmic backgrunds. Their educatin and past experience has seen them in similar helping rles in the scial sectr. Nature lver and adventure junkie by nature and a scial wrker by prfessin, T has always had a keen interest in issues relating t scial justice. Originally frm Crg and brught up in Bangalre, she cmpleted her MA in Scial Wrk frm TISS, Mumbai in 2008 with a fcus n Criminlgy and Crrectinal Justice. She has wrked with Prerana in Mumbai and Bicn Fundatin in Bangalre. (Staff prfile n website) On the ther hand, the crrespndents drawn frm the cmmunities t be served are typically frm an underprivileged backgrund - with respect t caste, class, and/r gender, and belng t rural, less develped regins f the cuntry. These Cmmunity Crrespndents represent India s mst marginalized perspectives, including wmen, Dalits, tribals, religius, linguistic and sexual minrities. (Descriptin f the Mdel f India Unheard) This perceptin f lw status is reflected in the frequent usage f wrds such as backward, under-privileged, marginalised, etc. while referring t the crrespndents, and the cmmunities they are drawn frm. The rganisatinal prcess f selecting such crrespndents and the selectin criteria are geared twards identifying individuals wh reflect this backward status. Even where a previus cmmunity crrespndent has been nw selected int emplyment psitins, these references are evident. S was a Cmmunity Crrespndent frm Cuttack District befre she became the Odisha c-rdinatr fr India Unheard. Brn in a village where there are n schls that teach past the seventh grade, she had t struggle and persevere t get educated. (Staff prfile n website) Overall, the rganisatinal representatins f these actrs cntinue t fcus n characteristics f their traditinal identities, including status (backward r minrity), previus educatin and experience, and past rles. 4.2.2. Hierarchical Relatins The sci-ecnmic backgrund and scial status f the rganisatin enables it t enjy access t resurces - bth financial and knwledge, scial legitimacy, and participatin in high-status netwrks. J is a TED Fellw and a Fellw f Eching Green, an rganizatin that invests in scial entrepreneurs with high-impact slutins. In 2009 she was recgnized as an Architect f the Future by the Waldzell Institute f Austria, and in 2010, as an Outstanding Yung Persn by the Junir Chamber Internatinal Osaka. In 2011, she Page 12

was ne f the tp fifty peple shrtlisted fr the Grinnell Cllege Yung Innvatr fr Scial Justice Prize, ut f ver 1000 applicants frm 66 cuntries. (Staff prfile n website) The cmmunity crrespndents are selected frm a pl f individuals with limited means, lw sci-ecnmic status, and ften ppressive histries. Even where such individuals were previusly invlved in scial activism within their lcal cmmunities, they lacked the visibility r resurces t have a majr impact. One f the CCs is a transgender. He was brn a female but knew he identified as a man. During his childhd, he was s abused at hme that he tried t cmmit suicide many times. I als met amazing wmen wh champined wmen s rights even after years f severe dmestic vilence. There was this particular Muslim wman wh tld us that this training was the first time in her entire life that she had nt been frced t wear her hijab. (Article n wrking with cmmunity media http://www.videvlunteers.rg/wrking-with-cmmunity-media/) There appears t be an underlying hierarchy in the structure f relatins between the actrs - between rles f benefactrs vis-a-vis the beneficiaries, and between the mainstream, alternate, and unheard. This is als represented in writing by interns/vlunteers wh had brief assciatins with the rganisatin. Befre cming t India, I read bks abut cultures and traditins in India. Mst f the time, they just described the Indian culture as very traditinal and patriarchal. I knew that the peple frm VV wuld be very pen-minded and different frm what was stated in the bk. What I did nt realise was that their passin fr their wrk, their ideas and ways f seeing the wrld and just the way they are wuld be s innvative and wuld give s much hpe fr a better future and change fr pr and marginalised peple. (A Vlunteer s accunt) Thus, the funders, emplyees, and citizen jurnalists seem t be unequal partners in the participatry jurnalism prcess. The inequality inherent in scial structure is perpetuated in the internal rganisatin f the prcess, and in the representatin f actrs. Cntinuity and cherence are imprtant mtivatinal principles in identity maintenance prcesses i.e. individuals desire aspects f the self t remain cnsistent ver time and seek the perceptin f cmpatibility and cherence between intercnnected identities [Breakwell 1993]. In this case, actrs pre-existing high-status and lw-status scial identities, and rles f helping and ppressed, receive cntinuity thrugh the meaning f their new rles and grups under the rganisatin. The new rganisatinal grups becme scial identity categries and individual identities as rganisatinal members are cnstructed arund these categries. 4.2.3. Selectin, Exclusin, and Gate-Keeping Since the rganisatin has the cntrl ver and access t rganisatinal resurces, it cntrls the mandate f hw and t whm they shuld be alltted. The gegraphical regin t be cvered, the lcal issues t be selected, and the desired prfile f crrespndents are defined by the rganisatin befre a recruitment drive within these regins t identify ptential cmmunity crrespndents. The rganisatin recruits individuals int their netwrk f cmmunity crrespndents based n a thrugh selectin prcess (applicatin, grup discussin, and interview) and well-defined selectin criteria. The criteria fcus n marginalised, ecnmically backward, diverse, and gegraphically spread individuals with a demnstrated interest in scial activism. These prcesses f selectin - f peple and Page 13

f issues - culd mean exclusin f ther peple and ther issues, and an peratin f a tp-dwn mandate by the higher-level emplyees in the frm f strategy. After the fever f grup discussins, the candidates are grilled ne-n-ne by VV staff. The candidates are mstly asked abut their prir experience. Questins that remain unreslved at the grup discussin are intrduced. During the interview, the team clarifies and makes final ntes n the candidates. Our gal is t have ne Cmmunity Crrespndent in every district, i.e. 645, within the next five years. We re have arund 130 ttal trained at the mment, and we are nw grwing state by state... As we make the annual plan fr the year, we decide which states we want t expand t. (Refer t articles n Criteria fr selecting CCs and An Insider s View n Recruiting Cmmunity Crrespndents ) The selectin f crrespndents is fllwed by a residential training prgramme prir t cmmencing wrk in the field. The crrespndents are trained t build media prductin skills as per the rganisatin s standards. One f the gals (psited) appears t be, t be n par with mainstream jurnalism and t prduce cntent that is seen as wrthy by glbalised audiences. Further, based n their perfrmance, a sectin f crrespndents is included in the staff psitins which frm the cre team f the rganisatin. The emphasis shuld be n hw t get such stries t be a part f the mainstream media and t sharpen skills that ensure stries are newswrthy. (Newspaper article hsted n http://www.videvlunteers.rg/media/print-articles/) Tp 10% CCs mved int leadership rles f mentring and training, and trained t initiate their wn prjects. (Annual Reprt 2013-14) One f the significant aspects f participatry jurnalism is negatin f the gatekeeping rle played traditinally by jurnalists in deciding which stry becmes news and hw. This demcratic prcess r mvement is psited t shift the pwer balance in favur f rdinary citizens, and blur the bundaries between the jurnalist and audience [Lewis et al. 2010]. Hwever, in this rganised frm, the gate-keeping functin appears t exist subtly thrugh cntrl ver wh tells which stries, and hw. The inherent inequality f actrs in the internal rganisatin translates int prcesses that may be selective and exclusinary, and largely cntrlled by the funders. The rganisatin seeks t influence the skill and style f media prductin. While ensuring greater expsure t sectins f sciety traditinally denied media expsure, the rganisatin still appears t functin as a silent gatekeeper. 4.3. Terms f the Exchange In this theme, we explre the representatin f the scial exchange relatinship between the rganisatin and the cmmunity crrespndents. These are represented in unequal terms and hint at need n part f cmmunities, and help n part f the rganisatin. Implicit is the assumptin that media access and skill is a rare and valuable resurce, which the rganisatin wns and extends as a means f empwerment and cmmunity change. What des it receive in exchange frm the cmmunities, the thers? We discuss actrs identity prcesses as the surce f their mtivatin t participate in this prcess. 4.3.1. Instrumental and Scial Exchange As discussed in previus sectins, the representatin f the relatins between the rganisatin and cmmunity is asymmetrical, where the rganisatin extends benefits t, and empwers the cmmunity, thrugh media access. Page 14

Viewed in instrumental terms, the rganisatin prvides certain resurces t the cmmunity crrespndents, which benefit the larger cmmunity. These include financial resurces in the frm f paid emplyment, access t and visibility in mainstream media netwrks, and media-prductin and usage skills. It is these benefits that are largely emphasised in rganisatinal representatins abut its wrk and impact. Our internatinal cmmunity media rganizatin equips wmen and men in underdevelped areas with vide jurnalism skills, enabling entire cmmunities t expse under-reprted stries frm their cmmunities... (Sectin n What is Vide Vlunteers? ) Prviding disadvantaged cmmunities with the jurnalistic and creative skills they need, VV s mdels fr lcally-wned and managed media prductin teach peple t articulate and share their perspectives n the issues that matter t them - n a lcal and a glbal scale. (Missin statement) Hwever, based n the scial exchange perspective [Emersn 1976], partners will remain in a scial relatinship s lng as they derive sme benefit (ecnmic, scial, r psychlgical) frm the exchange. Hwever, it appears that the benefits that the rganisatin receives frm the crrespndents are nt adequately represented in its discurse. The rganisatin benefits frm the crrespndents cnnectin with the cmmunity, their understanding f lcal issues, and their effrt and mtivatin t cver imprtant issues which subsequently result int relevant media cntent. T fulfil its missin f helping backward cmmunities thrugh media, it needs participatin and initiative frm these cmmunity jurnalists wh wuld be willing t wrk with the rganisatin n these issues. We re interested in hyper lcal jurnalism. We want t wrk with peple wh will stay engaged in that cmmunity. We re als interested in having the vides reflect the diversity f the cuntry. As cmpared t mainstream jurnalists we believe that a cmmunity crrespndent s cnnectin t their cmmunity is their greatest, mst unique selling pint. (Article n Criteria fr selecting CCs ) This cntributin f crrespndents t the effective functining and impact f the prcess is imprtant, yet under-emphasised. 4.3.2. Identity and Self-Enhancement The exchange relatinship between the funders and crrespndents, and their mtivatin t participate in this prcess, can be viewed frm the identity perspective as a surce f self-enhancement fr bth sets f actrs - as individuals and as a scial grup [Tajfel and Turner 1985]. Individuals seek an identity that is unique and psitively distinctive frm thers, feelings f cmpetence and cntrl, perceptins f persnal r scial wrth, feelings f clseness t and acceptance frm thers, and a sense f significance and purpse in ne s life [Vignles et al. 2006]. When these principles are nt met, the individual experiences an identity threat [Breakwell 2001]. Fr the citizen jurnalists, it appears that identifying neself as a cmmunity crrespndent is a means fr building r recvering their persnal identity, negated r marginalised by their sci-ecnmic status and previus experiences. The crrespndent prfiles and stries are characterised by persnal experiences f discriminatin and ppressin n accunt f their caste, gender, r scial psitin. In fact individuals frm such backgrunds are selected int, and perhaps als self select int, this prcess. Page 15

As quted in the Nick News piece, N says, When I see the wrk which is being dne, I am prud abut it. Even I can d smething. I am wrth smething. (A Crrespndent s qute in http://www.videvlunteers.rg/media/cllabratins/) Being assciated with a credible, reputed rganisatin, wrking twards a psitive impact n cmmunity, and being a part f a netwrk f ther crrespndents allws these individuals t cnstruct a psitive identity that prvides meaning, self-efficacy, self-wrth, and a sense f belnging [Breakwell 1993]. There are pprtunities fr imprved self-efficacy thrugh develpment f new skills and capacities, and pssibly higher prestige in the cmmunity thrugh wrking n scial issues as a part f the India Unheard prgramme. There is als an pprtunity t enhance their cllective identities defined thrugh caste, gender, r class, by participating in a rights-based scial mvement. This platfrm has enabled me t understand issues better. I have als cme a lng way because I am n lnger scared t talk t anyne, said R A, a vide crrespndent frm Sagar district in Madhya Pradesh. (A crrespndent s qute in a newspaper article, http://www.videvlunteers.rg/media/print-articles/) Fr the rganisatin - funder, trustees, staff, and vlunteers - their sense f identity is anchred arund building r being invlved in (t varying degrees) an rganisatin that helps sciety, uplifts backward cmmunities, and pineers an alternative frm f media. Especially where such individuals cme frm an affluent backgrund and/r a histry f mainstream wrk, taking n this alternate wrk identity and all that it stands fr can be a means t achieve distinctiveness, meaning, and wrth. They can nw identify themselves with a larger cause and see themselves as scially respnsive, innvative individuals. Thrughut this experience s far, I am really enjying myself and dn t feel like ging back t wrk fr mainstream media. In fact, I nw want t cntinue t wrk fr NGOs, fundatins r institutins engaged in scial change r in envirnmental issues and t create dcumentary films abut their issues. Here I want t thank VV fr all f this, fr having given me the chance t realise my dream and mre energy t cntinue in this way. (A Vlunteer s accunt) She (J) spent nine mnths training rural wmen in the art f film-making. I remember writing in my jurnal, What if this is the beginning f a new directin in my life, recalls the 33 year ld Native New Yrker, What if I fall in lve with India and stay frever? (Descriptin f funder) 5. Analysis Based n the discussin in previus sectin, we prvide a framewrk that captures ur understanding f the representatin f rles and relatins f scial actrs in the participatry jurnalism prcess examined in this case. We see actrs' identities as underlying the nature and terms f the relatinships they frm, and the rles they cme t ccupy in the participatry jurnalism cntext. The intentin is t present the key elements f ur findings in an rganised frm and explre linkages between them. Traditinal identities: The actrs assciated with the rganisatin and thse assciated with the cmmunity typically differ in their backgrund and scial status - the frmer hail frm mre affluent, privileged sectins and the beneficiaries frm less privileged backgrunds. They cme int the participatry jurnalism prcess with these self- Page 16