A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW ON THE PSYCHOSOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF NOSTALGIA WITHIN THE GENERAL POPULATION USING EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES: STUDY PROTOCOL Sanda Ismail (SI); Richard Cheston (RC); Gary Christopher (GC) INTRODUCTION The meaning of nostalgia has been contested over time. Historically, nostalgia has been associated with homesickness and attributed to various pathological conditions such as anorexia, suicide attempts, weeping, sadness, anxiety, fever and insomnia (Kaplan, 1987; Peters, 1985; Sedikides, Wildschut and Baden, 2004). However, surveys from Davis (1979) revealed that nostalgia is the sentimental longing for an object, place or event in the past, rather than a longing to return to one s home. College students were found to attribute words such as childhood, warm, old times and yearning more often with nostalgia than homesickness (Davis, 1979). Consistent with this definition, nostalgia has been defined as, missing objects, events, or people from one s personal past (Batcho, 1998; p. 423). In lay terms, nostalgia is defined as a sentimental longing for the past (The New Oxford Dictionary of English, 1998; p. 1266). However, both the lay and scholarly definitions of nostalgia have been criticised for lacking scientific rigour and coverage, respectively. In response, nostalgia has been perceived as a category of emotions which comprises several representative attributes. Thus, nostalgia constitutes both positive and negative emotions, although the positive emotions dominate the negative ones (Hepper et al, 2012). Hepper et al (2012) further argues that experiences cannot be clearly delineated as nostalgic or non-nostalgic. Instead, some experiences are more nostalgic than others. Regardless of these contested definitions, presently, nostalgia is conceptualised to go beyond the recall of the past to focus on events that are more affect-laden (Sedikides, Wildschut and Baden, 2004). This has also led to clear distinctions between nostalgia and normal autobiographical memories. Normal autobiographical memories including reminiscence involve recalling of specific past events in one s life, including the order in which these events occur (Coleman, 2005). These events are usually not significant or affect-laden. On the other hand, nostalgia surpasses mere accuracy in the ordering of past events to include self-relevant events (Sedikides, Wildschut and Baden, 2004); that is, an individual can reminisce about a phenomenon or event, but it is the sentimental component that follows some memories that makes them nostalgic: 1
One can remember without being nostalgic, but one cannot be nostalgic without remembering (Batcho, 2007; p. 362). An appreciation of this distinction has resulted in a growing interest in exploring the impact of nostalgia on peoples lives. Nostalgia has been postulated to serve several psychosocial functions. Theoretically, nostalgia serves as a resource for the present by assembling pieces of the lived past together in order to acquire a powerful sense of selfhood. It serves as a reservoir for reducing uncertainties and gaining our identity (Cavanaugh, 1989; Mills & Coleman, 1994). It also protects our identity by enabling us to cope with loss self-esteem (Kaplan, 1987). Through the nostalgic experience, one is able to break away from present ordinary situations by making use of a luxurious past. By reflecting on proxy contentment, one s present identity amasses value and becomes more acceptable (Gabriel, 1993). These ultimately enhance the self; strengthen social bonds and backs up cultural worldviews (Juhl et al, 2010, Routledge et al, 2008). These are referred to as distal strategies which nostalgia is believed to use in counteracting threats to one s human existence (death, freedom, isolation and meaninglessness) (Sedikides, Wildschut and Baden, 2004). Various attempts have been made to systematically test the psychosocial functions of nostalgia in comparison to normal autobiographical memories. It has been suggested that some of the desirable features of nostalgia is its ability to increase positive self-regard, positive affect, social connectedness, meaning in life, counteract loneliness and improve general psychological health and wellbeing (Cheung et al, 2013, Hepper et al, 2012, Hook, 2012, Impert and Rubin, 2011, Stephan, Sedikides and Wildschut, 2012, Turner, Wildschut and Sedikides, 2012, Zhou et al, 2012, Barrett et al, 2010, Juhl et al, 2010, Routledge et al, 2008, Routledge et al, 2011, Routledge et al, 2012, Sedikides et al, 2008, Wildschut et al, 2006, Wildschut et al, 2010). As a result, some of the findings from these studies present arguments for the concept of nostalgia to be extended and investigated among other populations. In order to achieve this, there is the need for a clear and detailed summary of findings from various studies investigating the psychosocial functions of nostalgia, hence the need for a systematic review in this area. This review will help increase our understanding of some of the psychosocial functions of nostalgia and the extent to which findings from these studies can be relied upon. It will also provide adequate information for the replication and extension of experimental studies on nostalgia among other populations. These populations could be people with life-threatening conditions such as dementia and cancer. 2
Aim and Objectives of the review The main aim of this review is to identify the psychosocial functions of nostalgia within the general population and evaluate the methodology used in these investigations. To achieve this, this review will: 1. Search for relevant studies on the psychosocial functions of nostalgia within the general population by using comprehensive search terms in relevant psychology databases; 2. Summarise the findings from included studies in the review by identifying the psychosocial functions of nostalgia investigated; 3. Appraise the evidence on the psychosocial functions of nostalgia by assessing the risk of bias in how these studies were conducted. Research question What are the psychosocial functions of nostalgia within the general population? METHODOLOGY Study design This research will be a systematic review. A systematic review involves the use of clear, detailed systematic methods to identify relevant studies and critically evaluate them, then analyse data from these studies in order to answer a specific question (Moher et al, 2009). This review will follow the steps in the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta- Analyses) guidelines for conducting systematic reviews (Liberati et al, 2009, Moher et al, 2009). Methods Eligibility criteria This review will only consider studies which meet the following inclusion criteria: Participants: People within the general population of any gender, age, race, nationality, ethnicity or health background. Intervention/exposure: Experimentally evoking nostalgia Comparison: Controlling for nostalgic feelings, specifically, evoking ordinary autobiographical memories. 3
Outcome: Psychosocial functions such as self-enhancement, identity, personality, affect or mood, emotions, social connectedness or need to belong or attachment or loneliness, boredom, meaning/purpose in life, charity-giving, wellbeing, quality of life, optimism, anxiety or terror management, prejudice or stigma, cognition. Study type: Experimental studies Language: English Publication type: both published and unpublished research. The following exclusion criteria will be applied to eliminate studies from the review: Cross-sectional studies; qualitative studies and case reports Studies on reminiscence, life review/stories and other autobiographical memories apart from nostalgia. Preliminary investigations in the same report as the actual study. Information sources Electronic databases, grey literature sources and relevant websites will be explored to obtain the studies to be included in the review. Electronic databases to be explored will include: MEDLINE (1961-2014); PsychINFO (1806-2014); Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health (CINAHL Plus) (1904-2014); The Cochrane Library (1900-2014); British Nursing Index (1994-2014); Social Care Online (1980-2014); EMBASE(1947-2014); ScienceDirect (1823-2014); ISI Web of Science (1993-2014); Applied Social Sciences Index and Abstracts (ASSIA) (1987-2014); Social Service Abstracts (1979-2014). Other grey literature sources and websites that will be explored will include: The National Register (NRR); The UK Clinical Research Network (UKCRN); System for Information and Grey Literature in Europe (SIGLE); Grey Literature Report; The British Library; Index of Conference Proceedings; Zetoc (conference proceedings) and Southampton Nostalgia Group page; subsequent reports cited by the studies included in the review. Search and study selection The search term which will be used in all the information sources will be nostalgia. The selection of studies will follow the PRISMA (Moher et al, 2009) proposed flow of information in selecting studies for reviews. These stages will be identification, screening, eligibility and 4
inclusion in the systematic review (Liberati et al, 2009, Moher et al, 2009). The selection of studies will be done by SI and cross-examined by RC. Identification: All studies and reports identified from the information sources will be exported to a reference management software (Refworks). Exact duplicate reports will be removed using this software. Screening: Screening will first of all involve reading through the titles of the identified studies. Those reports which are not directly relevant to the hypothesis of the review will be excluded. Secondly, the abstracts of the remaining articles will be read to further include or exclude them from the subsequent review. Eligibility: An eligibility form (Appendix I) will be developed to further exclude studies from the review after reading the full articles or report of these studies. We noticed from prior searches that most of the experimental studies on nostalgia report several individual studies in a single report or article. So, the eligibility of all these individual studies in a single report will be assessed such that only the most relevant will be included in the review. Inclusion of studies in the review: The remaining studies after the identification, screening and eligibility assessment will be finally included in the review and data will be extracted from these studies. Data extraction process A data collection form for experimental studies (Appendix III) will be developed to extract data from the individual studies included in the review. This is adopted from The Cochrane Collaboration (Higgins and Green, 2011). This form will be pilot tested using four randomly selected studies included in the review. Any necessary modifications will be made before applying it to the rest of the studies in the review. The data collection process will be initially carried out by one of the reviewers (SI) and the process will be cross-checked by another reviewer (RC). The data collection form will cover broad domains such as: Characteristics of the study in the report; Population and setting; Methods; Participants; Manipulation of nostalgia; Intervention groups; Outcomes; Results; Other information and Applicability. Corresponding authors of the various reports will be contacted for any additional information should the need arise. This information will also be used to assess the risk of bias of the various studies. 5
Risk of bias in individual studies The Cochrane Handbook for systematic reviews suggests the use of the term risk of bias in systematic reviews instead of methodological quality. This is based on the rationale that assessing the risk of bias in reviews enables reviewers to assess the extent to which the results of a study can be believed (Higgins and Green, 2011). A risk of bias tool adapted from The Cochrane Collaboration will be used to assess the risk of bias in studies included in the review (Appendix II). Synthesis of results A narrative/ descriptive approach will be used to synthesise the results in this review. The findings from the studies included in the review will be summarised to show (i) the theoretical underpinnings governing the use of nostalgia in the various studies (ii) a summary and evidence behind the findings on the psychosocial functions of nostalgia and (iii) the applicability and extension of nostalgia for other populations. References Barrett, F.S., Grimm, K.J., Robins, R.W., Wildschut, T., Sedikides, C. and Janata, P. (2010) Music-evoked nostalgia: affect, memory, and personality. Emotion [online]. 10 (3), pp.390. [Accessed 12 January 2014] Batcho, K.I. (1998) Personal nostalgia, world view, memory, and emotionality. Perceptual and Motor Skills [online]. 87 (2), pp.411-432 [07 November 2013]. Batcho, K.I. (2007) Nostalgia and the emotional tone and content of song lyrics. The American Journal of Psychology [online]. pp.361-381 [04 November 2013] [12 December 2013]. Cheung, W.Y., Wildschut, T., Sedikides, C., Hepper, E.G., Arndt, J. and Vingerhoets, A.J. (2013) Back to the future: nostalgia increases optimism. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin [online]. 39 (11), pp.1484-1496. [Accessed 15 March 2014] Coleman, P.G. (2005) Uses of reminiscence: Functions and benefits. [online]. [Accessed 05 March 2014] Cavanaugh, J.C. (1989) I have this feeling about everyday memory aging. Educational Gerontology: An International Quarterly [online]. 15 (6), pp.597-605 [Accessed 23 February 2014]. Davis, F. (1979) Yearning for Yesterday: A Sociology of Nostalgia [online]. Free Press New York. [Accessed 15 March 2014] Gabriel, Y. (1993) Organizational nostalgia reflections on the golden age. In S. Fineman (Ed.), Emotion in organizations (pp. 118-141). [online] [Accessed 13 November 2013]. 6
Hepper, E.G., Ritchie, T.D., Sedikides, C. and Wildschut, T. (2012) Odyssey's end: Lay conceptions of nostalgia reflect its original homeric meaning. Emotion [online]. 12 (1), pp.102. [Accessed 11 March 2014] Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochranehandbook.org Hook, D. (2012) Screened history: Nostalgia as defensive formation. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology [online]. 18 (3), pp.225. [Accessed 15 March 2014] Impert, L. and Rubin, M. (2011) The Mother at the Glen: The Relationship Between Mourning and Nostalgia. Psychoanalytic Dialogues [online]. 21 (6), pp.691-706. [Accessed 15 March 2014] Juhl, J., Routledge, C., Arndt, J., Sedikides, C. and Wildschut, T. (2010) Fighting the future with the past: Nostalgia buffers existential threat. Journal of Research in Personality [online]. 44 (3), pp.309-314. [Accessed 16 March 2014] Juhl, J., Routledge, C., Arndt, J., Sedikides, C. and Wildschut, T. (2010) Fighting the future with the past: Nostalgia buffers existential threat. Journal of Research in Personality [online]. 44 (3), pp.309-314. [Accessed 11 March 2014] Kaplan, H.A. (1987) The psychopathology of nostalgia. Psychoanalytic Review [online] [Accessed 08 November 2013]. Kemper, T.D. (1987) How many emotions are there? Wedding the social and the autonomic components. American Journal of Sociology [online]. 93 (2), pp.263. [Accessed 16 October 2014] Liberati, A., Altman, D.G., Tetzlaff, J., Mulrow, C., Gøtzsche, P.C., Ioannidis, J.P., Clarke, M., Devereaux, P., Kleijnen, J. and Moher, D. (2009) The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: explanation and elaboration. Annals of Internal Medicine [online]. 151 (4), pp.w-65-w-94. [Accessed 11 April 2014] Mills, M.A. and Coleman, P.G. (1994) Nostalgic memories in dementia-a case study. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development [online]. 38 (3), pp.203-219 [Accessed 16 November 2013]. Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J. and Altman, D.G. (2009) Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. Annals of Internal Medicine [online]. 151 (4), pp.264-269. [Accessed 11 April 2014] Peters, R. (1985) Reflections on the origin and aim of nostalgia. Journal of Analytical Psychology [online]. 30 (2), pp.135-148. [Accessed 17 February 2014] Routledge, C., Arndt, J., Sedikides, C. and Wildschut, T. (2008) A blast from the past: The terror management function of nostalgia. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology [online]. 44 (1), pp.132-140. [Accessed 15 March 2014] 7
Routledge, C., Arndt, J., Wildschut, T., Sedikides, C., Hart, C.M., Juhl, J., Vingerhoets, A.J. and Schlotz, W. (2011) The past makes the present meaningful: Nostalgia as an existential resource. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology [online]. 101 (3), pp.638. [Accessed 15 March 2014] Routledge, C., Wildschut, T., Sedikides, C., Juhl, J. and Arndt, J. (2012) The power of the past: Nostalgia as a meaning-making resource. Memory [online]. 20 (5), pp.452-460. [Accessed 15 March 2014] Sedikides, C., Wildschut, T., Arndt, J. and Routledge, C. (2008) Nostalgia past, present, and future. Current Directions in Psychological Science [online]. 17 (5), pp.304-307. [Accessed 15 March 2014] Sedikides, C., Wildschut, T. and Baden, D. (2004) Conceptual Issues and Existential Functions. Handbook of Experimental Existential Psychology [online]. pp.205. [Accessed 15 March 2014]. Stephan, E., Sedikides, C. and Wildschut, T. (2012) Mental travel into the past: Differentiating recollections of nostalgic, ordinary, and positive events. European Journal of Social Psychology [online]. 42 (3), pp.290-298. [Accessed 15 March 2014] The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) Oxford, England: Oxford University Press Turner, R.N., Wildschut, T. and Sedikides, C. (2012) Dropping the weight stigma: Nostalgia improves attitudes toward persons who are overweight. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology [online]. 48 (1), pp.130-137. [Accessed 15 March 2014] Wildschut, T., Sedikides, C., Arndt, J. and Routledge, C. (2006) Nostalgia: content, triggers, functions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology [online]. 91 (5), pp.975. [Accessed 16 February 2014] Wildschut, T., Sedikides, C., Routledge, C., Arndt, J. and Cordaro, F. (2010) Nostalgia as a repository of social connectedness: the role of attachment-related avoidance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology [online]. 98 (4), pp.573. [Accessed 16 February 2014] Zhou, X., Wildschut, T., Sedikides, C., Chen, X. and Vingerhoets, A.J. (2012) Heartwarming memories: Nostalgia maintains physiological comfort. Emotion [online]. 12 (4), pp.678. [Accessed 23 January 2014]. 8
Appendix I: Eligibility assessment form APPENDICES Title of study Author and year of publication Study number in report (for multiple studies in a single report) Study Characteristics Not Eligibility criteria Yes No sure Type of study Participants Experimental study Any human population (children, adolescents, adults) Types of intervention Experimentally evoking nostalgia Types of outcome measures Language Any psychosocial outcome such as self-enhancement; identity; personality; affect or mood; emotions; social connectedness or need to belong or attachment or loneliness; boredom; meaning/ purpose in life; charity-giving; wellbeing; quality of life; optimism; anxiety or terror management, prejudice or stigma, cognition. English Language INCLUDE EXCLUDE Reason (s) for exclusion 9
Appendix II: Assessment of risk of bias in included studies The Cochrane Risk of Bias tool version 5.1.0 (adopted) Domain Risk of bias Support for judgement Low risk High risk Unclear Random sequence generation (selection bias) Allocation concealment (selection bias) Blinding of participants and personnel Outcome group: All/ (performance bias) Blinding of outcome assessment Outcome group: All/ (detection bias) Incomplete outcome data (attrition bias) Selective outcome reporting? (reporting bias) Other bias Selecting participants for the study (selection bias) 10
Appendix III: Data collection form Study ID: Title of study: Author (s) and year of publication: 1. Characteristics of study in report Description Include comparative information for each group (i.e. intervention and controls) if available Continuation from a previous study (Is it building from a previous study in the same report?) Yes No Unclear 2. Population and setting Description Include comparative information for each group (i.e. intervention and controls) if available Population description (from which study participants are drawn) Setting (including location and social context) Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria Method/s of recruitment of participants Informed consent obtained Yes No Unclear 11
3. Methods Descriptions as stated in report/paper Aim of study Design (e.g. parallel, crossover, cluster) Unit of allocation (by individuals, cluster/ groups or body parts) Total study duration Ethical approval needed/ obtained for study Yes No Unclear 4. Participants Provide overall data and, if available, comparative data for each intervention or comparison group. Description as stated in report/paper Total no. randomised (or total pop. at start of study for NRCTs) Baseline imbalances Withdrawals and exclusions (if not provided below by outcome) Age Sex Race/Ethnicity Other relevant sociodemographics 5. Intervention groups Copy and paste table for each intervention and comparison group 12
Intervention Group 1 Description as stated in report/paper Group name No. randomised to group (specify whether no. of people or clusters) Theoretical basis (include key references) Description (include sufficient detail for replication, e.g. content, dose, components) Duration of experimental period Providers (e.g. no., profession, training, ethnicity etc. if relevant) 6. Manipulation of nostalgia Description as stated in report/paper Manipulation definition (with diagnostic criteria) Time points measured Time points reported Person measuring/reporting Scales: upper and lower limits (indicate whether high or low score is good) Is manipulation check/tool validated? Yes No Unclear 7. Outcomes Copy and paste table for each outcome. 13
Outcome 1 Description as stated in report/paper Outcome name Time points measured Time points reported Outcome definition (with diagnostic criteria if relevant) Person measuring/reporting Scales: upper and lower limits (indicate whether high or low score is good) Is outcome/tool validated? Yes No Unclear Imputation of missing data (e.g. assumptions made for ITT analysis) Power 8. Results Copy and paste the appropriate table for each outcome, including additional tables for each time point and subgroup as required. Manipulation check Description as stated in report/paper Outcome Time point (specify whether from start or end of intervention) Comparison between groups Results Experimental Control 14
Mean SD (or other variance) No. participants Mean SD (or other variance) No. participants Unit of analysis (individuals, cluster/ groups or body parts) Statistical methods used and appropriateness of these methods (e.g. adjustment for correlation) Continuous outcome Description as stated in report/paper Comparison Outcome Subgroup Time point (specify whether from start or end of intervention) Post-intervention or change from baseline? Results Experimental Control Mean SD (or other variance) No. participants Mean SD (or other variance) No. participants No. missing participants and reasons Any other results reported Unit of analysis (individuals, cluster/ groups or body parts) 15
Statistical methods used and appropriateness of these methods (e.g. adjustment for correlation) Other outcome Description as stated in report/paper Comparison Outcome Subgroup Time point (specify whether from start or end of intervention) Results Intervention result SD (or other variance) Control result SD (or other variance) Overall results SE (or other variance) No. participants Intervention Control No. missing participants and reasons No. participants moved from other group and reasons Any other results reported Unit of analysis (by individuals, cluster/groups or body parts) Statistical methods used and appropriateness of these methods 16
9. Applicability Have important populations been excluded from the study? (consider disadvantaged populations, and possible differences in the intervention effect) Is the intervention likely to be aimed at disadvantaged groups? (e.g..people with lifethreatening conditions) Does the study directly address the review question? (any issues of partial or indirect applicability) Yes No Unclear Yes No Unclear Yes No Unclear 10. Other information Description as stated in report/paper Key conclusions of study authors References to other relevant studies Correspondence required for further study information (from whom, what and when) 17