A REVIEW OF INTENTION-BEHAVIOUR THEORIES:

A REVIEW OF INTENTION-BEHAVIOUR THEORIES: HOW USEFUL ARE THESE FOR MEASURING CONSUMER INTENTION TO PARTICIPATE IN FAMILY TAKAFUL? Maizaitulaidawati Md Husin School of Professional and Continuing Education Malaysia University of Technology Asmak Ab Rahman Academy of Islamic Studies University of Malaya Abstract The purpose of this paper is twofold. First, to identify relevant models in predicting consumer intention to participate in family takaful and second, to proposed modified Decomposed Theory of Planned Behaviour (DTPB) in understand factors affecting participation in family takaful. This paper reviews intention-behaviour theories applicable to participation in family takaful; assesses the evidence for their effectiveness in predicting consumer intention; and examines the implications of these findings for developing strategies to capture wider market share for family takaful product. The authors searched a number of electronic databases for theories of intention-behavior. Four theories were examined. Considering the growing popularity of family takaful, the current research is the first academic attempt to collect and identify the most appropriate model that can effectively measure consumer intention to participate in family takaful. Keywords: Intention, consumer behaviour, family takaful. Introduction Muslims are ubiquitous. In Asia, Islam is the second largest population after Hinduism (Mubbsher et al., 2012; Kwon, 2007; Maysami and Kwon, 1999). Islam is believed to provide guidance in every sphere of life which is not limited to the social aspects but also covers economic dimension of human life including in dealing with business transaction such as buying insurance protection. Insurance is a form of risk management product designed to provide protection to individuals and businesses against specified contingencies. Although the concept of insurance is permissible under Islamic teaching, certain practices in conventional insurance breach the Islamic law. According to Islamic law, participating in conventional insurance is prohibited due to the existence of usury (riba), uncertainty (gharar) and gambling (maysir) elements. For instance, gain money or earning of interest from accumulated fund as well as investing in non shariah compliance business is considered riba, premium paid to the company in exchange for indemnity against risks that may not occur is considered gharar while the insurance company accepts premiums from the insured at a level which it anticipates will cover claims and result in a profit is considered maysir. Therefore, as 37

Muslims is prohibited to involve in any kind of riba, gharar and maysir activities, investing in insurance contract is not permissible. Thus, to cater Muslim needs toward insurance protection, takaful business is develop. Takaful was first introduced in Sudan in 1979. It is the Islamic version of the conventional insurance designed to fulfil Muslim needs to have Syariah approve financial service instruments (Hendon, 2009). Takaful business is based on a concept of cooperation and mutual assistance, whereby a group of participants agree to support one another jointly against a specified loss. The word takaful itself is derived from an Arabic word meaning joint guarantee or guaranteeing each other (Ahmad et al., 2012). Takaful have two types of products which are general takaful and family takaful (known as life insurance from conventional perspective). Basically, general takaful provides its participants with protection against losses arising out of general circumstances such as personal accidents and loss or destruction of property while family takaful provides its participants with protection, saving and investment facilities. Generally, the purpose of family takaful is threefold; first, to encourage participants to save over a fixed period of time and contribute a certain amount of money to takaful fund; second, to earn returns on contributions from investment in Syariah compliant instruments and third, to provide protection in the form of takaful benefits to the participant or their heirs (Ahmad et al., 2012; Hendon, 2009; Nik Ramlah, 1991). Although takaful business has been developed years ago, with abundant of family takaful products offered to the society, it is surprising there are still untapped market exist. The fact is that in majority of Muslim population countries, family takaful business is still lag behind its conventional counterparts and thus leaving untapped markets (Mohd et al., 2010; Ahmad et al., 2012). Therefore, the takaful operators should put greater effort in tapping these markets. Before any further effort and strategies formulated to increase market penetration, exploring and identifying the contribution drive on consumer intention to participate in family takaful is essentials. Therefore, existing theories need to be examined further to determine their relevancies in identifying and understanding the consumer intentions to participate in family takaful. Application of intention-behaviour theories to predict intention towards family takaful Many studies have recognised the importance of intention-behaviour theories in efforts to understand and predict questionable volitional behaviour (Thompson and Panayiotopoulos, 1999; Bhattacherjee, 2000; Armitage, 2005; Al-Maghrabi and Dennis, 2011; Jin and Kang, 2011; Chun and Chun, 2012; Amin, 2012). These studies however, have yet to examine the effects of intention-behaviour theories within the family takaful context. As such, this research extends the intention-behaviour theories to the family takaful context in an effort to understand the factors that motivate consumers to participate in family takaful. Several theories, namely the theory of reasoned action (TRA), theory of planned behaviour (TPB), attitude-self influence efficacy model (ASE), and decomposed theory of planned behaviour (DTPB) has been used before in efforts to understand or predict questionable volitional behaviour. Table 1 presents the useful theories in measuring intention behaviour. The authors then summarise the theory in each perspective, provide examples of its application and examine the usefulness of these theories in measuring consumer intention to participate in family takaful. 38 Insurance and Takaful Journal (INTAJ)

Model Theory of Reasoned Action Theory of Planned Behaviour ASE model Decomposed Theory of Planned Behaviour Author Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) Ajzen and Madden (1986) Vries et al. (1988) Taylor and Todd (1995) Table 1: Summary of intention-behaviour theories. The Theory of Reasoned Action The theory of reasoned action (TRA) model is based on three constructs namely behavioural intention, attitude and subjective norm. Attitude, also known as behavioural belief, consist of beliefs about the outcome of the behaviour and the evaluation of the outcome while subjective norms, also known as normative beliefs, are beliefs about others thought on the specified behaviour and motivation to comply towards the behaviour (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). In their respective aggregates, behavioural beliefs produce a favourable or unfavourable attitude toward the behaviour while normative beliefs result in perceived social pressure to perform the behaviour. The TRA also conceives that behavioural intention is an immediate antecedent to behaviour. Basically, behavioural intention is beliefs about the likelihood of performing a particular behaviour will lead to a specific outcome (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). To illustrates, in predicting individual intention to participate in family takaful, beliefs that participation into family takaful is good and able to protect him from risk form a behavioural belief and affect attitude of the individual while beliefs that family and friends want him to participate in family takaful and he want to act like what his family and friends want him to do form a normative belief and affect subjective norm of the individual (Refer Figure 1). Beliefs about the outcome of the behaviour "If I participate in family takaful scheme, I will be protected from risk" Evaluation of expected outcomes "Protecting by family takaful scheme is good" Action towards actions Normative beliefs "Family and friends want me to participate in family takaful scheme" Behavioural intention Behaviour Subjective norms Motivation to comply "I want to do what they want me to do" Figure 1: Theory of reasoned action (Adapted from Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). 39

TRA has been widely used in determine intention and behaviour (Thompson et al., 1994; Chang, 1998; Bobbitt and Dabholkar, 2001; Arshia and Mohsin, 2012; Velasquez et al., 2012). In the case of financial service, Omar and Frimpong (2007), Omar (2007), Fauziah et al. (2008), Amin and Chong (2011), Amin et al. (2011), Echchabi and Olaniyi (2012) as well as Amin (2012) has adapted TRA in identifying intention towards financial service. Therefore, adapting TRA in understanding intention to participate in family takaful seemed justified. However, according to Madden et al. (1992), a fundamental limitation of this theory is that it only considered pure volitional control in the model and ignores external factors that could facilitate or impede the behavioural intention. The Theory of Planned Behaviour The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) has emerged as one of the most influential and popular conceptual frameworks for the study of human action (Ajzen, 2001). Basically, TPB is an extension of the TRA (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). TRA has been extended due to the fact that behaviour may not always be under volitional control. Fundamentally, the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) argues that human behaviour is guided by three kinds of considerations: beliefs about the likely consequences or other attributes of the behaviour (behavioural beliefs), beliefs about the normative expectations of other people (normative beliefs), and beliefs about the presence of factors that may further or hinder performance of the behavior (control beliefs). In their respective aggregates, behavioral beliefs produce a favourable or unfavourable attitude toward the behavior; normative beliefs result in perceived social pressure or subjective norm; and control beliefs give rise to perceived behavioural control, the perceived ease or difficulty of performing the behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). As explained earlier, TPB was developed with the inclusion of perceived behavioural control as a function of control beliefs and represents the perceived ease or difficulty of performing the behaviour. It is a form of beliefs regarding the possession of requisite resources and opportunities for performing a given behaviour. For example, when people does not equipped with sufficient resources or information to initiate the behaviour, their intention to perform the behaviour may be lowered even if they have favourable attitudes and / or subjective norms to perform the behaviour (Madden et al.,1992). In other word, individuals are likely to engage in certain behaviour if they believe they have required resources and confidence to perform the behaviour. Behavioural control is also believed to have a direct influence on intention and able to reflect the actual behaviour (Madden et. al, 1992). The significant relationship between perceived behavioural control and intention has been found in many studies such as Bhattacherjee (2000), Armitage and Conner (2001), Fukukawa (2002), Armitage (2005), Yap and Noor (2008), Chun and Chun (2010), Syed and Nazura (2011), Goh Say Leng et al. (2011) and Siti Norezam et al. (2012). In combination, attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, and perception of behavioral control lead to the formation of a behavioral intention and in turn reflect the actual behaviour. To illustrates, in predicting individual intention to participate in family takaful using TPB, three are three kinds of considerations. First, beliefs that participation into family takaful is good and able to protect him from risk form a behavioural belief and affect attitude of the individual. Second, beliefs that family and friends want him to participate in family takaful and he want to act like what his family and friends want him to do form a normative belief and affect subjective norm of the individual. Third, remembering participating in family takaful is easy form a control belief and may facilitate the behavioural intention (Refer Figure 2). 40 Insurance and Takaful Journal (INTAJ)

TPB has been widely adapted in various research areas (Bobbitt and Dabholkar, 2001; Bonne et al., 2007; Soesilowati, 2010; Golnaz et al. 2010; Syed and Nazura, 2011). In the case of financial service, Hasnah et al. (2011) utilised TPB in their research towards understanding factors influencing behaviour of insurance agents. Therefore, using TPB in predicting consumer intention to participate in family takaful seems reasonable. Beliefs about the outcome of the behaviour "If I participate in family takaful scheme, I will be protected from risk" Evaluation of expected outcomes "Protecting by family takaful scheme is good" Action towards actions Normative beliefs "Family and friends want me to participate in family takaful scheme" Behavioural intention Behaviour Subjective norms Motivation to comply "I want to do what they want me to do" Control beliefs "Remembering participating in family takaful scheme is easy" Perceived behavioural control Figure 2: Theory of planned behaviour. (Adapted from Ajzen, 1991) ASE-Model The ASE model is an integration of the Fishbein and Ajzen's (1975) theory of reasoned action and Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory. According to Ajzen and Madden (1986), the ASE-model is comparable to Ajzen's theory of planned behaviour. In the ASE-model, it is assumed that intention and behaviour are primarily determined by three cognitive variables namely attitudes, social influences and self-efficacy expectations. According to this theory, a person s attitude towards a specific behaviour (eg: participate in family takaful ) is a result of the consequences that a person expects from performing the behaviour (eg: family takaful able protect me from risk ). Social influences can be described as the process whereby people directly or indirectly influence the thoughts, feelings and actions of others. To illustrate, a person may want to participate in family takaful because he thinks that his mother want him to do so. The concept of self-efficacy can be seen as a person's belief in his or her ability to perform the desired behaviour. For example, a person may want to participate in family takaful because he has enough money to do so. Basically, ASE-model has been widely adapted in various research areas (Kaguna and Nuwaha, 2000; Saskia et al., 2002; Vries and Mudde, 1998; Li et 41

al., 2003). However, to the authors knowledge the application of ASE-model into finance related work has yet to be done. Figure 3 presents the adapted ASE-model. Attitude "Participate in family takaful able to protect me from risk" Social Influence "I want to participate in family takaful because I think my mother wants me to do so" Behavioural intention Behaviour Self-efficacy "I want to participate in family takaful because I have enough money to do so" Figure 3: ASE Model (Adapted from Vries et al., 1988) The Decomposed Theory of Planned Behaviour Decomposed TPB (DTPB) was originated by Taylor and Todd (1995) in an effort to understand behavioural intention towards using information systems. Basically, DTPB is a combination of TPB and innovation of diffusion theory. Unlike TPB, DTPB decomposing the attitudinal, normative and control beliefs into multidimensional constructs. According to Taylor and Todd (1995) and Beiginia et al. (2011), DTPB able to provide more explanatory power, better diagnostic value and strengthen the ability of the model to explain behavioural intention. Although this theory is specifically tailored to understand the intention to use information technology, some of the factors are useful and relevant to be adapted in order to understand factors influencing intention to participate in financial service, including family takaful. This is based on the fact that the implication of the DTPB can be changed, by changing attitudes, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control towards a specific behaviour (Taylor and Todd, 1995). Bhattacherjee (2000), Shih and Fang (2004), Pedersen (2005) and Beiginia et al., (2011) are among authors utilised DTPB in various research areas. These studies however, have yet to utilises DTPB within the financial service context including family takaful. Therefore, this research extends the DTPB to the family takaful context in an effort to understand factors motivate consumers to participate in family takaful. Originally, DTPB identifies three latent s variables, namely perceived usefulness, ease of use and compatibility to affect an individual attitude. However, due to the different nature of the study, the authors adapted research done by Omar (2007) and identifies risk protection, saving and investment able to influence individual attitude to participate in family takaful. All of these latent variables are chosen due to the fact that family takaful provide three benefits to their participants which are protection over risk, saving and investment. Therefore, if an individual beliefs that participating in family takaful able to protect his and his family from financial 42 Insurance and Takaful Journal (INTAJ)

uncertainties in case of his death, helps him to save regularly and provides him with a reliable investment, he will have favourable attitude towards participation in family takaful. DTPB also classifies two latent s variable for subjective norms which are personal referents and superior inferences. However, the authors feels that personal referents and media referents, adopted from Zolait (2008) is the most relevant to the nature of family takaful because individual beliefs and intention to participate into family takaful may be influence from the personal referents (peers/friends/family) or from the media (newspapers/ magazines/televisions/radio). To illustrate, if an individual beliefs that his referents such as family and friends think that he should participate in family takaful and mass media also consistently recommend to participate in family takaful, it will affect his normative beliefs and in turn results in positive subjective norm. In addition, DTPB also identifies three latent s determinants of perceived behavioural control namely selfefficacy, resources facilitating condition and technology facilitating condition. Again, due to different nature, the authors only adopt two from the variables which are self-efficacy and resources facilitating condition. Basically, self-efficacy, originated by Bandura (1986) refers internal perception to perform the specific behaviour while resource facilitating conditions, originated by Triandis (1980) refers to external beliefs of an individual s to engage in the behaviour. To illustrate, individuals with high confident (self efficacy) and have the resources necessary (resource facilitating condition), such as time and money to participate in family takaful will perceived the ability (high perceived behavioural control) to participate in it. Figure 4 presents the adapted DTPB. Discussion This review has discussed numbers of intention-behaviour theories that can contribute to understanding factors affecting consumer participation in family takaful. A number of recommendations suggested subsequent from this review. Firstly, some of the theories have been widely applied especially in predicting intention from psychological view. For example, DTPB has been extensively applied in an effort to understand factors influencing adoption of information system. Therefore, existing intention-behaviour models should be tested systematically in financial service area such as takaful as it able to utilise the model properly with well defined and definite variables. This further efforts able to shows how these theories could be operationalised and widely applied in other areas in practice. Secondly, future research should focus not only on the development of new theories but rather on the further examination of those already discussed. The modified DTPB suggested also should be test on its ability to explain intention to participate in family takaful. In addition, research should take into account the influence of external factors such as demographic and situational factors perceived by consumers in measuring intention and actual behaviour. Thirdly, further research is required to identify the intention-behaviour that is utmost applicable to understand factors affecting intention of consumer to participate in family takaful. The theories should be examined systematically to discover the effects of different kind of behaviour to different group in different context. For instance, is both men and women in both Malaysia and Turkey has the same intention and behaviour towards family takaful. 43

It is also important to point out some of the limitations of this study. Firstly, this study examines only theories from intention-behaviour perspectives and does not explore the theories from other perspectives. Therefore, it should also be noted that any understanding of consumer behaviour, and intention towards the behaviour, must be located within the relevant social, psychological, economic and physical environments. Secondly, the DTPB model is adapted to suit with this paper objective to understand and identify individuals intention to participate in family takaful. There are additional individual and external factors that will have direct and indirect on the variables that could facilitate the model. Thus, the models have to be tested empirically. Risk protection "If I were to participate in family takaful scheme, it would protect my family from financial uncertainties in case of my death" Saving "If I were to participate in family takaful scheme, it would help me to save regularly" Action towards actions Investment "If I were to participate in family takaful scheme, it would makes me have a reliable investment" Personal referent "My referent (friends/family) think that I should participate in family takaful scheme" Subjective norms Behavioural intention Behaviour Media referent "The mass media consistently recommend to participate in family takaful scheme" Self-efficacy "I am confident of participating in family takaful scheme even I have never participate it before" Resources facilitating condition "I have the resources necessary to participate in family takaful scheme" Perceived behavioural control Figure 4: Modified model of decomposed theory of planned behaviour. (Adapted from Taylor and Todd, 1995) 44 Insurance and Takaful Journal (INTAJ)

Theoretical Implications The aim of this paper was to identify theories related to intention-behaviour that can be applied into predicting intention to participate in family takaful. Since all of the theories identified have yet to examine the effects of intention-behaviour within the family takaful context, an effort are taken to extends the intention-behaviour theories to the family takaful context. However, these theories are subjected to empirical study. Further research is required to determine factors affecting individuals intention to participate into family takaful. This study also proposed a modified model of DTPB in an effort to understand individuals intention to participate into family takaful. The proposed model are expected to better explain an individual intention to participate in family takaful as it provide multidimensional constructs affecting attitudinal, normative and control beliefs. Besides, a proposed modified model of DTPB able to provide more explanatory power, better diagnostic value and strengthen the ability of the model to explain behavioural intention to participate in family takaful. Thus, there is the prospect for additional theorising and research regarding the applicability of the modified DTPB in predicting the intention to participate in family takaful. As the proposed model does provide information on the probable factors affecting attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, verified model able to helps takaful operator in identifying prominent factors influence individuals participation into family takaful. Managerial Implications Untapped takaful market is still existed in majority Muslim population countries. The takaful market is still far behind its conventional counterparts. Hence, efforts should be made to try to understand the existence of this phenomenon. Before strategies can be formulated and further implemented to stem this issue, takaful operators need to have better understanding on the factors that are likely to motivate individual to participate in family takaful. The application of the intention-behaviour theories has the potential to provide additional insights on the factors affecting intention among the individuals. Other than existing theories in intention behaviour, this paper proposes a modified DTPB could better explain the individual intention. If the modified DTPB is verified, it would provide useful information to marketing team of takaful operator, that might use the information to develop relevant strategies in identifying the right target market and strategies in an effort to increase market share and market penetration of family takaful. Conclusion The main objective of this study is to identify relevant models in predicting consumer intention to participate in family takaful and to proposed modified Decomposed Theory of Planned Behaviour (DTPB) in understand factors affecting participation in family takaful. However, the authors acknowledge that intention is subjective, dynamic and complex. Although the theories chosen for this review focus mainly on consumers intention and behaviour, this is not the only area in which family takaful can be promoted. Other external factors can change individual behaviours to participate in family takaful. The review is intended as an information source for those wishing to measure intention-behaviour using theory-based measurement focusing on psychological or interpersonal factors to participate in family takaful. 45

This study considered only four intention-bahaviour theories in predicting consumer intention to participate in family takaful. There may be well be other theories that should be considered to provide better understanding on consumer intention. Therefore, future research is required to identify other relevant theories to be adapted in understand consumer intention to participate in family takaful. 46 Insurance and Takaful Journal (INTAJ)

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