1 SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION: EXPLORING THE PROCESS OF ASSESSMENT AND OTHER RELATED CONCEPTS The Nature Of Assessment The Definitin Of Assessment The Difference Between Testing, Measurement And Evaluatin Characteristics f Assessment, Measurement And Evaluatin Assessment f student learning requires that the classrm teacher review the nature f assessment in rder t effectively link teaching, learning and assessment. Befre we prceed, here are seven principles which emphasize the imprtance f assessment The Nature f Assessment.
2 The classrm teacher must knw: (Rwntree, 1997) 1. Hw t assess: Teachers must select frm amng all the techniques at their dispsal. Traditinal Oral Written Alternate Authentic Perfrmance Prcess Prduct 2. What t assess: Teachers must be aware and decide what they are lking fr in the individuals invlved in the learning prcess. Student Achievement Perfrmance Behaviur Persnality Interests Values Attitudes Teacher Methds Appraches Enthusiasm 3. When t assess: Teachers must establish the purpse fr assessment t be administered. Befre instructin During instructin After Instructin 4. What instruments t use: Teachers must be knwledgeable f the variety f methds available t assess students perfrmance and patterns f behaviur. Standardized Tests Teacher-made Tests Observatin schedules Questinnaires Inventries 5. The develpmental level f the students: Teachers must use their knwledge f learning theries t plan apprpriate assessment crrespnding t students level f develpment, as well as individual differences. Chrnlgical Mental Physical Emtinal 6. Hw t interpret results: Teachers must cnsider the purpse and cnsequence f assessment t facilitate the methd f interpreting scres. Nrm-referenced Criterin-referenced 7. Then prvide feedback: Teachers must share strengths and weaknesses with the stakehlders f educatin. Students Parents Administratrs Plicy makers
3 DEFINITION OF ASSESSMENT: ASSESSMENT f student learning requires the use f a number f techniques fr measuring achievement. This is dne thrugh a systematic prcess that plays a significant rle in effective teaching. It begins with the identificatin f learning gals and ends with a judgement cncerning hw well thse gals have been attained. Thus fr Linn and Grnlund (2000, 31-32) assessment is: A general term that includes the full range f prcedures used t gain infrmatin abut student learning (bservatins, ratings f perfrmances r prjects, paperand-pencil tests) and the frmatin f value judgments cncerning learning prgress. Fr Savage & Armstrng (1987): Assessment includes bjective data frm measurement (and) frm ther types f infrmatin, sme f which are subjective (anecdtal recrds and teacher bservatins and ratings f student perfrmance). In additin assessment als includes arriving at value judgments made n the basis f subjective infrmatin. N.B. Sme authrs may use assessment synnymusly with evaluatin. Fr example, Mehrens & Lehmann (1984,5) wh define evaluatin as the prcess f delineating, btaining, and prviding useful infrmatin fr judging decisin alternatives. In each f the definitins abve, a prcess is utlined. It is clear that sme srt f instrument/technique must be administered/used in rder t btain data/infrmatin. This data/infrmatin can then be used t judge the level f understanding r standard f student perfrmance in relatin t knwledge, skills, attitude and pattern f behaviur. In cnsidering the prcess f assessment the fllwing view is very imprtant. Measurement is the handmaiden f instructin. Withut measurement, there cannt be evaluatin. Withut evaluatin, there cannt be feedback. Withut feedback, there cannt be gd knwledge f results. Withut knwledge f results, there cannt be systematic imprvement in learning (Parnell, 1973, 2698; in Mehrens & Lehmann 1984,7). Assessment f student perfrmance and patterns f behaviur may be assciated with negative effects such as anxiety, bias, unfairness, labeling, and traditinalism. Hwever, there are many benefits assciated with the purpses f assessment. PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT: The purpses f assessment can be utlined as fllws: Judging pupils mastery f skill and knwledge; Evaluating the instructinal methd; Ascertaining effectiveness f curriculum; Encuraging gd study habits; Measuring grwth; Ranking pupils; Diagnsing difficulties; Prviding feedback; Mtivating students; Reprting t stakehlders; Certifying examinees. Mehrens & Lehmann (1984, 7 12) cnclude that the main purpse f assessment, therefre, is t make EDUCATIONAL DECISIONS. These include the fllwing: Instructinal decisins (teacher & students) Guidance decisins Administrative decisins Research decisins Generally, we want t find ut abut ur students in rder t make decisins related t: Placement Selectin Aptitude Achievement Classificatin Guidance Prmtin In rder t answer the abve questins, that is, Hw well des the individual perfrm? we must cnduct frequent assessment activities. When cnducting assessment test, measurement and evaluatin - we shuld ask the fllwing questins t guide the purpse and decisin-making.
Placement: (entry behaviur) Have the students already achieved the intended utcmes? D the students have the prerequisite skills t prceed t the next tpic r unit? Frmative: (during instructin) Which learning tasks are students handling satisfactrily? Need help with? Diagnstic:(during instructin) Which students need remedial wrk? DIFFERENTIATING BETWEEN TEST, MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION Summative: (end f instructin) What grade shuld I assign t each student? Is the methd I am using effective? In this handbk evaluatin is viewed as the final stage in the assessment prcess, which is preceded by testing and measurement. Here is an example t clarify the difference/link between Test, Measurement and Evaluatin. Mrs. H is the teacher at Grade 3. She has new students wh were prmted frm Grade 2. Cnsider the fllwing assessment prcess: - Based n the definitin by Linn and Grnlund (2000) Step 1. She establishes Purpse: She wishes t cnduct an assessment t find ut Can the students add ne digit numbers t tw digit numbers up t fifteen successfully? Step 2: She administers a set f questins: a Test r an instrument r specific prcedure fr sampling a set f questins. This will help her t find ut Hw well each student perfrms in cmparisn t each ther (nrm-referenced) r in cmparisn with a dmain f perfrmance tasks (criterin-referenced). Step 3: She marks students wrk: She btains a numerical value r scre called the Measurement. Thus she finds ut Hw much each student scres. Step 4: She makes value judgment: That is, she makes an Evaluatin f students perfrmance. She judges whether they have the prerequisite skills t prceed t the next level r if she has t reteach the cncept re. the purpse. N.B When a teacher sifts and interprets the measurement he/she has btained, he/she is perfrming an evaluatin exercise Table 1.1 Differentiating Between Test, Measurement And Evaluatin TESTS MEASUREMENT EVALUATION A subject teacher cnstructs and administers a set f items t assess student perfrmance in (any subject area) N.B. student characteristics can als be btained using nn-testing devices The guidance cunselr has each student cmplete an interest inventry, attitude scale and a persnality test The items are scred. This prduces a set f numbers that indicate hw each student is perfrming in relatin t ther students r in cmparisn t a standard. High perfrming and lw perfrming students are identified. Psitive and negative attitudes, interest and different persnalities are als identified. 4 If a student lacks perseverance, is failing (subject area) and has a negative attitude twards the subject, then he/she can be advised that his/her chice f career in (prfessin) is hpelessly unrealistic. If a student is creative, lves (subject area) and des well, then she can be advised in her ambitin t becme a (prfessin).
5 DECISIONS SHOULD BE BASED ON SOUND CRITERIA!!!. Fur main characteristics reliability, suitability, bjectivity and validity - shuld be cnsidered when preparing t assess. These characteristics, therefre, are als essential in planning testing, measurement and evaluatin. Table 1.2 Characteristics f Assessment, Measurement and Evaluatin Reliability Suitability Objectivity Validity *Refers t the assessment btained with an assessment instrument *Cnsistency f test scres r assessment results frm ne measurement t anther *Inter rater cnsistency f scres between raters *Intra rater - Cnsistency f scres given by the same rater at different times *Apprpriateness f the item in relatin t: Age level f students Objective being tested Cntent taught *Free f subjective judgment *Degree t which equally cmpetent scrers btain the same measurement *Can affect reliability and validity f scres *Accuracy *Cncerned with adequacy and apprpriateness f the interpretatin and use f assessment results Criterin-related *Hw well the sample tasks are representative f the dmain f tasks r cntent t be measured- cntentrelated *The crrespndence between achievement test items and the instructin fr which the test is built. *Cnstruct related *Des the test measure what it sets ut t measure? In rder t ensure a high degree f reliability, suitability, bjectivity and validity there are several appraches the teacher can utilize.
Hw can the teacher imprve Reliability? Hw can the teacher imprve Suitability? Avid ambiguus questins and directins r instructins. Sample mre items with similar cntent. Use well defined scring/marking schemes. Train raters/markers in an effrt t standardize marking r interpretatin f students wrk Match items t bjectives. Hw can the teacher imprve Objectivity? Keep students reading level and age in mind when designing tests/exams. Give enugh time t cmplete tasks. 6 Prvide clear scring scheme r criteria especially fr perfrmance tasks and supply items e.g. essays. Design (select) items t ensure nly ne crrect respnse e.g. multiple chice. Hw can the teacher imprve Validity? Design a table f specificatins. Test nly what is taught. Cnsider fr whm and fr what. Ensure that instructins are clear. Use item types that enhance reliability f tests bth subjective and bjective items. Ensure apprpriate sampling cntent. Determine which lw discriminating items t discard after item analysis. Pay attentin t scring prcedures and test administratin. Grnlund (2000) pints ut: The degree f validity is the single mst imprtant aspect f a test. Furthermre, the teacher must be aware f the many factrs which may influence the validity f tests measurement, r evaluatin results at any given time in the assessment prcess. Therefre, the teacher must pay attentin t: (1) the test; (2) administratin and scring; (3) pupil s respnses; (4) the grup and the criterin. These factrs are utlined belw.
7 VALIDITY: Factrs which may influence Validity: 1. Factrs in the test: a. Unclear directins b. Pr sentence structure c. Inapprpriate level f difficulty f items d. Prly cnstructed test items e. Ambiguity f. Test items inapprpriate fr items being measured g. Test t shrt h. Imprper arrangement f items i. Identifiable patterns f items 2. Factrs in test administratin and scring: a. Insufficient time t cmplete test b. Unfair aid t individuals c. Cheating d. Unreliable scring f items e.g. essays e. Adverse cnditins (physical; psychlgical) 3. Factrs in pupils respnses: a. Invalid test interpretatins b. Emtinal disturbances c. Test anxiety d. Set pattern f answering 4. Nature f the grup and the criterin: a. Age b. Sex c. Ability level c. Educatinal backgrund d. Cultural backgrund