Histories, Theories and Methods Chapter One Reasons for Studying Development Are there really differences between men and women in behavior, emotions, or abilities? Does your culture, family, or neighborhood affect how you turn out? Why do people become depressed, anxious, psychotic, dependant on drugs? Why do some people develop cognitive disabilities, personality disorders, learning or attention disorders? Can we improve the conditions of development, prevent some problems from developing, and help people live longer, more fulfilling lives? Traditional views on children Children were: Considered to be evil and uncivilized treated as property Discipline was harsh They had no rights, but lots of responsibility. 1
Child Development Pioneers John Locke (late 1600 s) believed children came into the world Tabula Rasa or blank slate Jean-Jacques Rousseau (early to mid 1700 s) believed children were inherently good and when allowed to express natural impulses generous morality would develop Early 1900 s-(industrial Revolution) laws were passed to protect children Child Development Pioneers Continued G. Stanley Hall (late 1800 s) founded child development as an academic discipline as well as researched adolescents resulting with the label of storm and stress for the adolescent developmental stage Alfred Binet/Theodore Simon (late 1800 s) developed first intelligence test intended to identify public school children at risk of failing Developmental Theories Learning Theory Focus is on experience (nurture) shaping the individual (John B. Watson) Maturation View Physical aspects of growth and development (nature) influence the individual s experience (Arnold Gessell) Psychoanalytic Perspective Conflict between external demands and internal desires of child results in hidden battles 2
The Psychoanalytic Perspective Freud s Psychosexual Development Focus on emotional and social development Psychological traits of importance are dependence, obsessive neatness, and vanity Three parts of the personality the id, the ego, the superego - Id represents biological demand and instant gratification present at birth - Ego is conscious and seeks gratification but avoids social disapproval - Superego is conscious and monitors the intentions and behavior of ego by allowing guilt and shame for behavior Five Stages of Psychosexual Development Stage 1 Oral stage, focus on oral activities such as sucking, first year of life Stage 2 Anal stage, focus control and elimination of bodily waste products, toilet training stage of life Stage 3 Phallic stage, parent/child conflict over child s personal sexual exploration, parent of same sex seen as a rival Stage 4 Latency stage, sexual feelings remain unconscious, children play with same sex playmates, focus on schoolwork Stage 5 Genital stage, begins with biological changes in adolescence resulting in desire for intercourse 3
Contributions of Freudian Theory Influenced how child care workers approach infants, toddlers and preschoolers, esp. toilet training Influenced teachers sensitivity to students emotional needs Influenced the stage models of other theorists such as Erikson Limitations of Freudian Theory Theory developed on contacts with mostly women with emotional problems Based on recollections rather than controlled observational methods Inadvertent guiding of patients reports may have happened to support his theories Too much emphasis on basic instincts and motives Erikson s Psychosocial Development Focuses on development of emotional life, psychological traits and self-identity. Looks at importance of social relationships Emphasis is on the ego, or conscious sense of self Physical maturation contributes to development Mastery of developmental tasks at each stage needed to move to next stage Early experiences of parent/child relationship affect future developments and/or accomplishments 4
Contributions of Erikson s Theory Emphasize importance of human consciousness and choice Minimize role and threat of poorly perceived urges Portray human development as prosocial Some empirical support that positive outcomes of early life help children cope with life crises at later stage Learning/Behavior Theory Classical Conditioning Developed by Pavlov; Reflex (automatic) stimulus for a behavior is associated with a new stimulus for that behavior Bell (automatically wakens child) is paired with tension in child s bladder so the child learns to wake up when his bladder is full. 5
Operant Conditioning Developed by Skinner; Learning occurs due to its reinforcement effect. You are more likely to repeat behaviors that are reinforced (or bring about a positive state of affairs for you) Child learns that a grade of an A gets them praised by their parents and therefore they try harder to get A s Reinforcement Positive reinforcers increases the frequency of behaviors when they are applied (ex. Food and approval) Negative reinforcers increases the frequency of behaviors when they are removed (ex. Fear of failure is removed when one studies for their test) Extinction results from repeated performance of operant behavior without reinforcement (ex. Child s temper tantrum stops when parent leaves the room) 6
Punishment Punishment aversive events that decrease the frequency of the behavior they follow Not an ideal way to control behavior: Does not suggest alternative behavior Suppresses undesirable behavior only when its delivery is guaranteed May cause child to withdraw from the situation Can increase hostility 7
Social Cognitive Theory Developed by Bandura; Learning occurs by observing other people, by reading, by engaging in different media Observational learning occurs through modeling the same behavior of another person Observational learning can lie latent until the behavior observed is needed or applicable The Cognitive Perspective Cognitive Developmental Theory Information Processing Theory Focus on how children think about the world, logic, and problem solving Cognitive-Developmental Theory Developed by Piaget; intrigued by children s wrong answers; children seen as active participants Scheme pattern of action of mental structure that is involved in acquiring or organizing knowledge Adaptation interaction between the organism and the environment Assimilation process of responding to new objects or events according to existing schemes Accommodation Scheme is changed to incorporate novel object or event Equilibration balance achieved by assimilating new events into existing scheme 8
Four Stages of Cognitive Development Stage 1 Sensorimotor, (birth to 2 years); focus on sensory exploration; object permanence mastered Stage 2 Preoperational (2 to 7 years); focus on language and symbolic expression through play; children are egocentric Stage 3 Concrete operational (7-12 years); focus on mastering concepts such as reversibility Stage 4 Formal operational (12 years and older); ability to abstract reason See Table 1.2 Information Processing Theory Based on computer model of information processing Cognitive process consists of encoding information (input), storing the information into long-term memory, retrieving the information (or placing it in short-term memory), and manipulating the process to solve problems Most applicable to the teaching of methodological steps (examples: teaching the scientific method or teaching the steps to withdrawing blood) Biological Perspective Directly relates to physical development such as gains in height and weight; development of the brain; and developments connected with hormones, reproduction, and heredity Looks at development ethologically Ethology looks at inborn, instinctive, behavior patterns Fixed action patterns built in or instinctive behaviors (example: birds migrating to same place; sex hormone secretion during prenatal development resulting in masculine or feminine patterned brain) 9
Ecological Perspective Developed by Bronfenbrenner; looks at bidirectional interactions not just maturational forces or child-rearing practices; systems approach recognizing that there are systems imbedded in other systems which influence behavior and development (example: the behavior of a child is influenced by parents, peers, teachers, social groups, socio economic status, etc.) Bronfenbrenner s Systems Approach Microsystem interactions of the child with other people in the immediate setting such as the home, school or peer group Mesosystem interactions of various settings with the microsystem such as the parent-teacher conference or the school field trip to the zoo Exosystem institutions which indirectly affect the development of the child such as the school board or the parent s place of employment Macrosystem involves the interaction of the child with the beliefs, expectations, and lifestyle of their cultural setting Chronosystem refers to the influence that the changes over time have on development 10
Sociocultural Perspective Developed by Vygotsky Humans are affected by the cultural and social environment in which they are born Focus is on the transmission of information and cognitive skills from generation to generation Learning consists of social engagement from a more skilled individual to a lesser skilled individual (example: an older sibling teaching a younger sibling to ride a bike) Sociocultural Terms Zone of Proximal Development refers to a range of tasks that a child can carry out with the help of a more skilled apprentice Inner Speech occurs when the outward speech used to walk one through a difficult task becomes embedded within the child Scaffolding problem solving methods such as cues provided to the child to increase independent functioning Diversity consists of one s ethnicity, race, gender, age etc. 11
Controversies in Developmental Psychology Nature/Nurture Controversy Age old question of which is more influential in development nature (heredity) or nurture (environmental influences)? Natural causes of development studied are genetic heritage (twin studies used frequently), the functioning of the nervous system and maturation Environmental causes of development studied are nutrition, cultural and familial backgrounds, educational opportunities, cognitive stimulation during early childhood and formal education Continuity/Discontinuity Controversy Continuous perspective views development as a process where the effects of learning mount gradually, with no major qualitative changes Discontinuous perspective views development as a number of rapid qualitative changes ushering in new stages of development Freud and Piaget were discontinuous theorists 12
Active/passive Controversy Active perspective maintains children are actively engaged in their development (example: child explores and learns more about dolphins due to their interest) Passive perspective maintains that children are passive and the environment acts on them to influence development (example: child learns violin from the teacher) Developmental Research Methodologies Naturalistic observation research conducted in the natural setting. Observer takes great pains not to disturb the environment. Interference can result in bias in the research results; effective when studying cultures Case study carefully drawn account of an individual s behavior; may use diaries, questionnaires, standardized tests, interviews, information from public records Correlational Studies Correlation attempt to determine whether one behavior or trait being studied is correlated or indicates a relationship with another behavior or trait; never indicates cause and effect Correlation coefficient this is a statistical index ranging from -1.00 to +1.00; the closer to -1.00 or +1.00 the stronger the correlation Positive correlation statistical relationship where increases or decreases in measurement correspond with increases or decreases in the other (example: attendance increased and grades increased) Negative Correlation statistical relationship which increases in one measure are matched with a decrease in the other (example: attendance increased, however, grades decreased) 13
Experimental Method Preferred method for investigating cause and effect One group receives the treatment and the other group does not; experiments test a hypothesis/es Variables experiments have independent and dependent variables -independent variable is manipulated -dependent variables are the measured results Experiments Continued Experimental group receives the treatment Control group does not receive the treatment Random assignment subjects assigned to a group randomly Ethical/practical consideration researchers look at the ethics and practical assignment of participants; sometimes correlational evidence must be settled for rather than experimental Animal subjects used to generalize findings to humans when it is not ethical or practical to use humans in the experiment 14
Longitudinal Research Seeks to study development over time; some subjects characteristics such as height, weight, and/or changes in mental capabilities observed repeatedly over time; a larger number of participants is needed for this type of study Typically time of study spans months or a few years Longitudinal researchers have to enlist future researchers to continue the study Cross-sectional Research Cross-sectional research observes and compares subjects of different ages; a larger number of participants is needed for this type of study Cohort effect group of people born at the same time; experience cultural and other events unique to their age group; children of a particular cohort will have different life experiences than their parents Cross-sequential Research Combines longitudinal and cross-sectional methods to overcome research drawbacks Full span of the ideal longitudinal study is broken up into convenient segments Minimizes the number of years needed to complete a study Time-lag comparisons are used 15
Researcher s Ethical Considerations Do no physical or psychological harm Informed consent is needed Participation must be voluntary Participants can withdraw from study Participants are offered information about the study Identities of participants remains confidential Research plans are to be presented to a committee of colleagues and gain the committee s approval before proceeding 16